The Nile Valley 1882-98
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- Created by: Hbrandxx
- Created on: 12-04-18 12:21
1. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?
The Problem of the Ottoman Empire
- Ottoman captured Egypt in 1517, expanding its hold across North African coast but empire was in decline in 1900s which worried the British- other EU powers could benefit/gain territory.
- Khedives in Egypt had lots of political freedom from Britain: from 1850s it relied on EU financial investment to develop its economy, 1863-70 Egypt's foregin debt went from £3 mill to £10mil.
- Khedive bankrupt 1875- Dual Control est. by Britain/France: forced khedive to introduce stringent financial reforms and reduce interest on their foreign debt.
- Khedive Ismail received a letter from sultan addressing him as ex-khedive; nationalist figurehead critical of the Ottoman and Anglo-French thus emerged.
- 1880- Laws of Liquidation enforced to reduce Egyptian debt.
Arabi Pasha and the development of Egyptian nationalism
- Led army officers in protest against Tewfik and Anglo-French interference in 1876.
- Formed Egyptian nationalist party 1879 'Egypt for the Egyptians'- appealed to bourgeoisie/fellahin and led a coup after they attempted to dismiss 2,500 officers from army.
- Forced khedive Tewfik to appoint a nationalist ministry: new cabinet borrowed £400,000 from Rothschilds to support army pay= British concerned with volatility of this.
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2. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?
Protecting EU loans and people
Strategic
- Suez canal opened route to India so shortened their journey their= trade.
- Main shareholders in the canal were French but in 1875 Disraeli purchased 45% from khedive.
- Clear Anglo-French rivalry/co-operation over investments; Britain wanted to be most powerful.
- Had a vested interest in keeping Egypt pro-British as they had shares in the canal.
- Scramble for Africa- hub for natural resources, industrial sections, markets for selling goods.
Trade
- Provided a growing market for Britishe exports during modernisation under Khedives.
- They purchased 80% of Egypt's exports (cotton) and supplied 44% of their imports.
- Britain's exports to Egypt were 5% of total imports.
- 88% of British commerce passed through the Canal.
- During US civil war, Britain imported lots of Egyptian cotton to make up loss of cotton from Southern states in US.
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3. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?
Financial
- British bond-holders in London exposed to failure by Egypt to pay debts.
- Gladstone encouraged to protect bond-holders in Egypt as 37% of his personal fortune was invested in Egyptian loans.
- Britain had to ensure Egypt paid off debt as they were their main creditor- needed to repay bond-holders investments.
People (Humanitarian motive)
- Short-term, Britain could claim intervention to prevent EU loss of life.
- 11 June 1882, w/British + French fleet anchored off Alexandria, a row escalated into anti-Christian riots, 50 EU and 250 Egyptians killed: Britain blamed riots on Pasha's supporters.
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4. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?
French withdrawal
- 1882- British/French responded to tensions by issuing Gambetta Note: stated that they regarded the maintenance of khedive's power as the best guarantee for Egypt's development.
- Intended to appease Nationalists but they imposed a nationalist cabinet on khedive.
- France/Britain feared he'd repudiate Egyptian debt payments/wanted to protect bond-holders- sent warships to Alexandria to restore khedive authority; French didn't support because:
- 1- Action of Bismarck: Germany no longer willing to support Dual Control and French didn't want to argue. Germans opposed any intervention by them w/o Bismarck's agreement.
- 2- French internal politics meant that Leon Gambetta was replaced by Freycinet who was less inclined to intervene in Egypt and was supported by French parliament.
- French frustrated by growing UK control in Egypt- had strategic interest in North Africa.
- Had regional acquisition in Algiers and Tunisia so posed a threat to Britain.
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5. Why did the British intervene in Egypt in 1882?
The British military campaign 1882
- Joint expedition: in uneasy position of acting unilaterally when French PM refused to sanction bombardment of Alexandria.
- 1882- Britain/France present joint note to Egyptian gov recognising khedive's authority.
- Anglo-French fleet sails for Alexandria where Pasha seized control: anti-Christian riot kills 50 Christians and Arabi fortifies city against Anglo-French expedition.
- British warships bombard and Pasha is defeated (57 British dead, 2000 Egyptian casualties),
- Pasha is exiled to Ceykon, Britain restore Tewfik who's a nominal figurehead.
- 1883- Baring returns to Egypt as consul general and British advisers to khedive report him.
Historical interpretations of the occupation
- Robinson/Gallagher: British pursued an anti-imperialist policy, identified local crises drawing them into Africa. Suez Canal and route to India pulled Britain into Egypt.
- Cain/Hopkins: capital investment in London (personal financial holdings in Egyptian loans). National interest defined by them so city's interests/national interests were linked.
- National Egyptian historians- social/economic tension= khedive modernisation/nationalism.
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1. Why was Egypt controlled by the British from 18
- Gladstone stated that as soon as financial stability was assured the British advisers to khedive would withdraw- no retreat so remained under 'veiled protectorate'.
- Announced their intention to withdraw 66 individual times, reasons for continued involvement:
- 1-Defeat in 1883 of Eyptian army under Hicks by radical jihadist forces under Ahmad.
- 2-Nature of British administrator Baring and his agenda for Egypt.
- 3-Defeat of Gladstone over question of Irish Home Rule 1886/dominance of Salisbury.
- 4-French North African rivarly.
The Veiled Protectorate 1882-1914
- London controlled Egypt without legal basis for it other than the lie that khedive requested it.
- Egypt remained as a province of Ottoman + only khedive had legal authority but his British under secretaries effectively ran the country.
- Gladstone/Salisbury's departure never came to fruition due to consul general in Egypt and continuing strategic importance of Egyt.
- Gambetta Note issues by Anglo-French 1882 as indication of military intervention there.
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2. Why was Egypt controlled by the British from 18
Baring's 'Mission in Egypt'
- Lie maintained that Egypt was a province of Ottoman ruled by its own khedive but khedive unable to make decisions without British consul general.
- Nationalists in Egypitan army fell + British reformed finances to ensure stability.
- Baring consul genreal 1883-1907: wanted fundamental changes in agricultural infrastructure.
- Realised the Egyptian gov was incapable of self-governance, lengthy occupation needed.
The emergence of radical Islam in the Sudan
- Convinced British not to withdraw as Egyptian control of Sudan was faltering.
- 1873- Khedive Ismail appointed Gordon as Gov general of Sudan (anti-slavery) but resigned when Ismail was deposed and order was lost.
- 1881- radical jihadist leader Mahdi emerged, intent on driving out Egyptian-ottoman overlords.
- 1883- wiped out all but 300 of 7,000 troops under Hicks: British convinced Egypt lost control.
- British uninterested in Sudan but didn't want it controlling Cairo/Alexandria so emergence of Mahdi reduced chances of withdrawal.
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3. Why was Egypt controlled by the British from 18
The collapse of liberalism in Britain
- Gladstone's commitment to home rule in Ireland caused Liberals to split= Tories dominated.
- Salisbury new PM wasn't carried away by imperial rhetoric- frustrated by presence in Egypt.
- Unprepared to give French potential strategic advantage in North Africa and aware of patriotic sentiments stirred up my Mahdi actions.
- Was prepared to sacrifice building projects there if he could protect British interests there.
- 1887-89: worked w/Turkey, France, Germany so they could re-enter Egypt if necessary.
- 1887- agreement for withdrawal reached w/Constantinople Convention, French + Russians threatened Sultan with invasion of Syria if Britain re-entered; Salisbury concluded that their strategic interests could only be guaranteed by remaining.
The work of Sir Evelyn Baring
- Little patience of oriental mind, convinced Egypt's future rested on developing agriculture.
- Implemented financial controls/reformed admin + agricultural systems.
- Incompatible w/Gladstone + Salisbury's attempts to withdraw: was destabilising peace between Great Powers, risk of move involvement in Africa, occpuation's dubious legality.
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4. Why was Egypt controlled by the British from 18
Achievement of Baring's reforms
- Financial controls restored Egyptian gov's solvency by 1887: London convention loaned 9mil in 1885, 8mil spent on stabilising debt and 1mil on irrigation/drainage of canal flood plains.
- 8% of gov revenue was spent on agriculture to improve the lot of fellahin.
- Baring put off fundamental taxation reform till a full land survey was done and the system's inequality wasn't adressed till then- agriculture boosted by development delayed by land tax.
- Limited investment in Education- refused to fund secondary education so limited upward mobility of fellahin and raised tuition fees in 1901 to decrease enrolment in primaries.
- Underestimated strength of nationalism- succession of Tewfik's son 1892 saw return of Egyptian nationalism and went to France to influence foreign opinion against British rule.
- Baring was oblivious to significance of Fellahin nationalism- reforms limited their nobility.
- Baring left in 1907; some agricultural/economic performs but nationalism was rife.
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1. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil
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1. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil
The problems of the Sudan
- As Ottoman declined, Egyptian rulers power grew and from 1821, Egyptian control over Sudan changed to admin control/formal occupation.
- 1873: Khedive Ismail appointed Gordon as gov of Equatorial Provinces of Sudan to end slave trade; made progress but destabilised economy (part of his modernisation programme).
- Gordon resigned in 1880 and subsequent governors had limited control over fractured society.
The Mahdi of Sudan
- Rise of militant Islam under Mahdi in 1881 further destabilised area- capitalising on Sudanese resentment of Egyptian's oppressive taxes.
- Due to: efforts to restrict slave trade, favoritism, Mahdi's radicalism, non-Muslims in Turco-Egyptian regime.
- Inadvertent result of Gordon's attack on slave traders- removed only local leaders who could've provided effective opposition to Mahdi.
- Egyptian forces launched numerous operations against him but Hicks force of 8,000 in 1883 were wiped out bar 300.
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2. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil
Gladstone's concerns and policy
- Gladstone/Baring feared Sudan problems would destabilise financial consolidation of Egypt.
- Prepared to cut Sudan loose to maintain control in Egypt- neccesary evacuation of Egyptian garrisons in Sudan as they couldn't fund cost of trying to maintian order.
- No strategic/economic interests (economic basis was slavery and rise of Mahdi).
- 1884- Gordon was dispatched to Sudan to organise evacuation, a year later Mahdi broke out though British fortifications at Khartoum and entire evacuated garrison was wiped out.
General Charles Gordon: mission in Sudan 1884-85
- Hugely energetic in efforts to end slave-trade in Sudan 1870s- knew area well.
- Intention was to generate publicity to change gov policy from evacuation to intervention but hard to enforce without adequate reinforcement which London/Baring refused to sanction.
- Gordon, rather than withdrawing garrison, spent time wiring plans to London.
- Mahdi came and he refused to withdraw so relief opperation needed; arrived 2 days late.
- Siege of Khartoum: mahdi broke through fortifications/entire garrison killed.
- Public blamed Gladstone for delay in relief dispatch: renamed MOG.
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3. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil
- Contributed to Gladstone/Liberals defeat in 1885 Genera Election.
- Long-term: desire to avenge Gordon made a deep impact on important decision makers.
- Was successful as governor as he quashed revolts against khedive/surpressed slave trade, mapped Nile as far as Uganda but destabilised economy as slave traders were members.
The conquest of Sudan 1898
- 1896- Salisbury ordered campaign to secure source of Nile; led by Kitchener.
- To protect British interests in Egypt (secure route to India), had to control source of Nile.
- 2 threats to British interests in the region:
- 1: Anglo-French rivalry= in control of Nile's headwaters (power politics).
- 2: Fears of newly emergent mahdist forces/Pan-Islamic nationalism.
- 1896- expedition launched under Kitchener to address the threats as defeat of Italians by mahdist forces at Battle of Adowa convinced Salisbury to act.
- Expedition was to ensure supply lines remained intact and to culminate in conquest of Sudan/defeat of Mahdi at Omndurman.
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4. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil
Fear of French occupation
- 1890- British declared Nile was its 'sphere of influence'; German, Italy, Belgium recognised this but France didn't so Salisbury wanted to thwart French expansion by presence in Sudan.
- Convinced occupation must be maintained as Russia posed a threat to the Med and French/Russian threats to Sultan of invading Syria + Armenia.
- The White Nile linked Egypt w/Britain's colonies in East Africa.
- 1892- 120 French met Kitcheners 1,500 men at Fashoda: Salisbury instructed him to est. British claim over entire Upper Nike.
- Both sides referred matter to London/Paris: navies were mobilised so French drop claim.
The role of General Horatio Herbert Kitchener
- In failed relief effort to extricate Gordon from Khartoum; learned lessons from this.
- Initial objective was Dongola but positive reports of expedition meant Salisbury expanded it to include retaking of Sudan- Mahdi defeated and Khartoum retaken.
- Ordered tomb of Mahdi to be opened and head to be decapitated and failed to reissue command to soldiers to spare wounded.
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5. Why were the British drawn further into the Nil
- Kitchener's actions in Sudan/use of concentration camps in Boer War outraged anti-imperialists but was hugely popular with the public and was secretary of war in WW1.
The significance of Omdurman: 2nd September 1898
- Salisbury's long-term goal: destruction of mahdi, Kitchener's Maxim gun achieved this at battle.
- 10,000 Mahdist forces dead, 13,000 prisoner and 5000 wounded, only 47 British dead.
- Churchill criticised Kitchener for not reissuing order that wounded soldiers be spared.
- Behaviour of British towards French at Fashoda and mahdist forces at Omdurman contrasted: British now had effective control of entire Nile and Sudan became part of Empire although the ficiton that Sudan was ruled by Egypt was maintained during veiled protectorate.
- Due to Britain's advanced weaponary/equipment they only had 382 casualties.
- Causes of savagery: Kitchener's veneration of Gordon, swift annexation of Sudan and testing of new military equipment.
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