Native American Civil Rights Pressure Groups

Indian Rights Association (IRA)

Founded in 1882.
Aimed to 'civilise' Native Americans through assimilation.
Very influential on 1930s federal government policy.
Had very little understanding of Native American cultures and way of life.
Although their actions were well-intentioned, they were ultimately harmful to Native Americans.
They lobbied politicians, monitored the actions of the Indian Agents and attempted to educate the public about native issues.

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Founded 1911 as group of 50 educated, fairly assimilated Native American men and women.
First attempt at an inter-tribal pressure group.
Campaigned for:
- improved education
- better health provision
- DID NOT CAMPAIGN FOR LAND RIGHTS/SELF-DETERMINATION (because the society members themselves disagreed).
Limited impact, because of infighting, lack of mass support and lack of funds.
Short-lived - collapsed in the 1920s.

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A group of writers and anthropologists, founded 1923 by John Collier.
Campaigned for:
- Land rights.
- Religious and cultural freedoms..
Set up to block the1921 and 1923 Levitt Bill (the Dance Order).
Influential (but not influential enough) in the formation of the Indian Reorganisation Bill that became the 1934 Wheeler-Howard Act.
- Failed to force federal government to abandon assimilation policy.
- Collier was disappointed about NA reaction - he hadn't consulted them enough.
Some aims were unrealistic:
- government didn't have the money to buy back native lands it had sold off.
- Assimilation wasn't going to be abandoned so easily.
John Collier was appointed Commissioner for Indian Afffairs 1933.

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Founded 1944 in response to initial attempts at Termination - the beginning of a Native American protest movement.
Worked through courts (like NAACP).
Aims - to challenge:
- Treaty-breaking.
- Employment discrimination.
- Inequality in education.
Harrison v Laveen (1948) - the NCAI collaborated in this case and won it. This reversed the states' use of voting qualifications to ban Native Americans from voting.
Won several victories by the 1960s, including defeating a bill in 1954 that would have led to states taking control of civil and criminal jurisdiction over Native Americans.
Obtained a pledge from JFK to develop the reservations, but then he died.
Pursued a policy of non-protest, which led to it being labelled as 'old-fashioned' by the younger generation of the 1960s.

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Founded 1961 to pursue civil rights for American Indians, because of frustration at older NCAI's more conservative methods.
Part of the Red Power movement
Focused on fishing and land rights in the North-West.
Used litigation and fish-ins as its main forms of protest.
1968 - fish-in in Washington State.
1970s - filed suits protecting reservation land from exploitation for mineral resources.

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Founded 1968.
Most militant protest organisation.
Campaigned about:
- Racism against Native Americans - patrol the streets like the Black Panthers.
- 'Native Sovereignty' - land/fishing rights, self-determination.
Worked through large-scale protests or media stunts, as well as litigation.
- Siege of Alcatraz 1969 (led by Richard Oakes and Adam Fortunate Eagle Nordwell)
- Occupation of Mt Rushmore 1971.
- Occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs 1972 following the arrival of the 'Trail of Broken Treaties' caravan.
- 1973 Occupation at Wounded Knee.
- 1975 Pine Ridge Reservation shootout.
Divisive through its violence.
Inspired a lot of the 'Red Power' movement.

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