Italy
Unificaion of Italy- Edexcel
- Created by: Charlotte Bowen
- Created on: 03-05-11 21:13
Political System
Constitutional Monarchy- King was head of state, commander of armed forces, dealt with treaties and trade
Era of Stability- Victor Emmanuell II 1900-1945
- Liberal politicians= social elites- middle class professioals
- Vote extended to 2m men only
- Parliament chosen by wealthy educated- not masses
- Trasformismo (linked to Giovanni Giolitti)- Political manoevuring - Kept same politicians in power- didn't addres social & eco problems
- Elite did not reflect what the people wanted
1900- Italin Socialists Party (PSI)- 1913 winning over 20% vote- change= Reform V Revoloution
Nationalism
Italia Irridenta: Nationalists demanded, Nice, Savoy, teratories in South Tyrol, Istria and Dalmatia (all in Austrian possession)
- Nationalists- wanted Empire to rival Britian France
- Liberals: Colonies to distract from internal issues
Abyssinia-FAIL humiliating defeat battle of Adowa(1896)- prestige- italians blamed Gov
1911 Giolitti- SUCCESSarmy to attack Libya- Success defeated Turkish forces (October 1912)
Pope=Tension:
- control over Papal States- Italy created = Land taken away
- Threat of socialism- Pope ordered Bishops- advise Catholics to vote against socialism
Political Challanges:
Political Challenges
Development of industry in the North (1880's & 1890's) Founding of Trade unions- Demandes: Higher wages, organised strikes- as depression hit (1898)
- Bava Beccaris Massacre- 200 killed (Milan 1898)
- King Umberto assasinated (1900)
- General railway strike (1902)
- General Strike (1904)
- Red Week- Riots & Demonstrations (June 1914)
(Remember: Burger King; BGR/KG - 1889, 1902, J1914, 1900, 1904)
Tripple Alliance
Tripple Alliance
Italy formws Triple Alliance with Germany & Austria Hungary (traditional enemy):
- guarantee security -(BUT limited threat from France)
- complicated nationalist ambitions to gain Italia Irridenta
BUT: Italy refused to act on terms of alliance at outbreak of war
Political Reform
Giolitti wanted reform to tackle Soicalism:
- Laws to control female (11 hours a day) and child labour (under 12)
- Social insurance & pension schemes
- Extension of Franchise to all adult males 30+
- Taxes on food reduced
- Increased public spending on public works by 50%
But- All brought in via trasformismo - extension of franchise to ensure continues support for Libyan war
- Increase to 8m voters
- 1913 elections- voters supported Socialitst or Catholics
- Lower classes- shokeepers, civil servants wories about growth of Socialism- look for alternative
Economic Problems- N/S divide
North South Divide
North- Significant changes between1896-1914
- expansion in profitable crops: grapes olives rice etc & dairy farming
- More efficient farming: Technology-Tuscany (mechanisation, fertilisers, irrigation)
- Schemed for land reclamation & drainage -Po Valley= commercial farming - hired landless peasants: poor living conditions & low wages
- Land holdings divided amongst large number of peasants - owner sold produce for profit- Peasants-share of crop( Land owners maximise profits squeeze peasants share)
N/S divide
South- Little change before the war
- Dry, hostile climate- poor soil & Barren hill sides
- Considered backwards - poverty, low income, land controlled by few landowners (lived off rent- pesant tennants)
- High unemployment -pesants seasonal labour jobs or emigrating
- Gov schemes transport and industrial subsadies had little impact
- Malaria- pre 1900-15,000 people died every year (advances in medicine- low lying and unhabtable countryside-Basilicata- now farmed)
BUT-
- 1914 industry still infant comared to European industrial nations
- Italy lacked Key resources: Iron Coal (coal= 12% imports 1914)
- annual production=11.5m ton steel = less than 1m ton
Social Problems
Industrialisation=expanding towns and cities
- population in Milan doubled 1871 an 1911
- Cities not equipped- poor workers=overcrowded & unsanitary conditions. Taxes fell on poor -contributed to rise of Socialism
- Education- illiterate fell from 42% 1871- 11%in 1911 - South Fall from 88%-65% -Illiteracy Major problem in parts of South
- Little to reform agriculture, backwardness, power of landowners & Mafia
- Peasants remain- poverty stricken, unskilled, illiterate= difficult to employ
- Italians chose to emigrate- 1914 6m/41m Italians lived and worked abroad
Why did Italy enter World War One?
Prime Minister Salandra-Italy enter war to obtain teritory
If Tripple Alliance Won=Italy little oppertunity to reclaim teritoys from Austria V If Entente powers won -not be very sympathetic to Italian Ambitions=
Treaty of London (April 1915)-Signed in Secret
Britain and France promised:
- Dalmatia, Istria,
- South Tyrol,
- Trieste,
- Trentino,
- Colonies
- May 1915= enter war on side of Britain & France
Army
5 million men served in Army- Majority conscripts from rural areas (industrial working class= armaments)
Appalling conditions, Meagre rations, Low pay, Harsh Discipline, high desertion rates= Low Morale
Caporetto (October 1917)- MAJOR DEFEAT
- Surprise Austro-German Attack:
- 700,00 retreaing over 100 mile (70 miles into Italy)=
- 300/000 wounded, 300,000 taken prisoner
- Gov promise major reforms after
Vittorio Vento (Octobr 1918)-Victory
Austro-Hungarian empire on verge of defeat- Italy wins smaller battle- 500,000 Austrian prisoners of War captured- Victory remembered by Italian people
Eco Problems after the War
National Debt- Borrowed large amounts from Britain US - increased 16bn lira 1914- 85bn 1919
Inflation- Increased X4- affected cost of living, purchasing power of wages & savings
Industry- Munitions industry done well in war, now no need profits fall dramatically
Trade Unions & Strikes- Discipline strict- No strikes in war- Long hours & fall in value of wages = wave of strikes 1919 1million + workers went on strikes, membership of unions increased to two million in 1929
Agriculture- Conscription soaked up unemployment & inflation (wiped out peasant debts)- peasants Demand Land- soldiers promised land at end of war
Unemployment- 5 million soldiers returning form war forced out of army= no work (unemployment passed 2 million 1919)
Mutilated Victory
Mutilated Victory
Prime Minister Orlando: promised - obtain terirories & colonies promised in Paris Peace Conference 1919
What italy Wanted- Promised treaty London- Gained Treaty St Germain
- Sout Tyrol Yes Yes
- Trentino Yes Yes
- Istria Yes Yes
- Dalmatia Yes No-
- Colonies Yes No
- Fiume No No
Limited reward- for 600,000 dead,massive debts, huge increae in the cost of living- Lib Gov Blamed
Fiume
Fiume= port on the Adriatic sea - part of Austro hungarian empire- Nationalists demanded government demanded claim Fiume-FAIL
September 1919- D'Annunzio- SUCCESS:
- 300 ex-soldiers siezed control over Fiume
- 15 months
- Liberal Gov failed to do anythin
- message use force to achieve political aims- image of weakness)
D'Annunzio- highly critical of gov- inspired Mussolini:
- Speeches
- Rhythmic chants( Eja Eja)
- Followers were blackshirts & skull and cross bones
- Used castor oil to humiliate opponent
- Roman Salute
Political Problems after the War
Divided Liberals-Giolitti against intervention
- Unpopular Liberals
- Gov critisised by Nationalists
- in favour of war angered at lack of success
- Gov tried to Implaiament reform (bread subsadies 8 hour days)
- failed to solve real problems
- Fiume= Gov had betrayed Italy failing to support D'Annunzio
Political changes:
- Liberals tried to maintain trasformismo& coalition gov
- when Libs formed alliance with one party loss support of other
- Result: shot-lived, weak coalition- continued till Mussolini took control (October 1922)
Proportional Rep
Proportional Rep:
- 54 consituencies
- 508 deputies could be elected= Encouraged divided political party system
- Introduced to reward soldiers = undermine Giolittis political system PPI & PSI deputies unlikley to participate in trasformism
Univerasl Male Suffarage- All adult Males right to Vote= reflect what Italy wanted
Political Problems after the War
Liberals fragile- no measures to cope with Eco & political problems after war- couldn't govern with parliamentary opposition= loss support and political instability
Liberals failed to give power to police and army- prevent collapse of law and order.
- October 1922-
- Libs lost control events and politics being conducted on streets with violence.
- liberals fearful of threat of socialism- believed only Fascism could crush socialism
Italian people unsatisfied with Liberals- Italy descended into chaos- Lawlessness widespread- Fascism offered Italians a firm gov in an era of instability
Formation of Fascist Movement
Mussolini- regime that would provide dynamic ladership
23 March 1919- Milan-
- Fascil di Combattimento ( Combat groups) first meeting of new movment
- 100 people 'Fascists of the first hour'
- designed to appeal to patriotic Italians- Commited to violence as political wepon
June 1919- First programme= Left Wing- Republic (abolish monarchy), Church (confiscate Church land and property)
Election FAILURE (Nov 1919)-
- Early movement not dicaplined
- in election Mussolini failed to become deputy
- (5,000/270,000 votes in Milan)-=Failed to win a seat in parliament
- Post War- Mussolini exploited Liberals failings
Revival of the Fascist Movement
Revival spontantious =(1920-21)- Po Valley, Ferraran Tuscany, Cremona & Bologna
RAS- Rutheless leadership -built independant empiires to overthrow Gov- used intimidation and violence to destroy Socialism- established their own control:
- Italo Balbo
- Roberto Farinacci
- Dino Grandi
Fascist Squads: made up from former soldiers (felt not rewarded from Gov) - & middle class students (exiting contrast to old Liberal men in charge)
Support for Fascism
Support=
- Landowners middle classes-
- prepared to pay & equip Fascist squads to defeat Socialists unions (Federterra)
- Industrialists (Fiat & Pirelli funded fascist squads)-
- Middle classes= petty bourgeoisie
- (lowerclasses including teachers)- All thought they would do well under Fascist Rule
Fascist Backlash- November 1920 use of Fascist violence= formation of Soicalist Council in Bologne turned into riot
Violence continued through winter and srpring 1921- Destroying 80 trade union offices - 200 dead 800 wounded
Role of Mussolini
Mussolini=
- Charismatic speaker skilled propaganda(ist)
- lack of ideological commitment (change views to suite audience)
- persue 'dual policy'- intimidation & violence masked of respectibility (including illigal tactics)
- owned II Popolo d'Italia (important propaanda tool)
- Prepared to use violence to put pressure on Liberals & King- March on Rome
Relised if come to power had to become a right-wing movement- secure support from elites, conservatives & middle classes.- made out elite had much to gain- strong expansionist Italy- hated democracy and parliament
Electoral Pact (May 1921)- Mussolini entered parliament- SUCCESS
Liberals fail to gain majority=electoral pact with Mussolini-Mussolini MP's support Giolitti when elected in Parliament- Fascists 35 seats- 'air of respectability'
PNF (National Fascist party)
November 1921- Mussolini & Ras unite to form PNF
Dual policy- 1921-22
- Newspapers publicise Fascist activitys
- Present Fascism as National Movement- vision of New Italy
- Fascism was anti-Scoailist crusade
Fascism noq the "defender of property and law and order": Offered: Stable Government:
- Strong Leadership
- Enforce Law and Order
- Scoail Reform
- Improvement in Social and Eco condisitons
- End to Class division
March on Rome October (1922)
March on Rome- October (1922)
- Mussolini wanted to be elected Prime Minister legaly- But under pressurefrom the Ras to sieze power
- Believed the psycological threat of a March on Rome engough to make Liberal agree to becoming prime Minister
- King under pressure an feared ciil war- indicisive and lacked confidence (feared bieng replaced by his cousin- Duke of Aosta)- pressure MoR= Mussolini appointed Prime Minister 30th Oct 1922
- Needed to form a coalition Gov- King would not let him remove parlliament- not got compleate control or Ras- Had to keep Ras and Elite sweet but sepearte
- First Movement- 4/14 senior ministers Fascist
- Mussolini- Prime Minister & Minister of Interior & Minister of Foreign Affairs
Steps to dictatorship
Convinced MP's violence of socialism so serious he needed emergency powers (reality socialist threat non existent) -
1- Rule By Decree got- parliament to grant him rule by decree for 12 months= Laws without parliament- MP's Massive vote of confidence
2 Control Fascist Party- looked to consolidate his position:
(1). Grand Council of Fascism (Dcember 1922)-right to make ll appointments to the Grand Council
( 2.) National Militia (January 1923)- Reduced influence of Ras, turinign Fascist Squads into national Militia e.e (private army 30,000men)
Electoral Reform
Proposed to change electoral stsyem - make Fascists largest party
1. Acerbo Law (July 1923)
polled 25&vote + = 2/3 seats, be able to control and no-one be able to vote them out of power:
- Fascist squads- smash hostile newspapers &rival parties
- Mussolini= Minister of Interior- instruct police to stand aside
- Fascists- important positions ing Gov
2.Acerbo Election (April 1924):
Acerbo law in pratice- April 24- Fascists secured 374/535 seats- Corrupt, black shirt violence, intimidation, vote rigging. (BUT:Socialists & Communists 2.5 million votes)
Mussilinis opposition: Opposition parties, king could sack prime minister, army
The Matteottti Crisis
- Before General election MP's trie to publicise Fascist violence.
- Socialist Spokesman: Giacomo Matteotti- produced evidence of fascist terror & vote rigging
- 10 June 1924- Matteotti abducted and stabbed to death
- Evidence of Mussolinis involvment= tension & criticism- opposition urged King to sack Mussolini
- Reaction: Mussolini made consessions to secure position- resigned ost as Interior Minister- made national militia swear oathe of loyalty to King.
- King throughout 1923 not go against Mussolini fear spark civil war.
- July 1924- Mussolin introduced press censorship- August banned meetins by opposition parties
- Ras unhappy- demamd Mussolii secure power
- 3 January 1925- sealled his move to dictatorship - gave himself much greater power
Terror/Repression
1925-27
Censorship-From 1925-
- Journalists registered with Fascist Authorities
- Anti-Fascist newspapers shut down (anti-F writing seen as treason)
- Newspaper editors personally liable
- Intense campaign of intimidation & violence against press
- By 1930- Fascists controlled 2/3 newspapers- daily instructions of what to write
Leggi Fascistissime:
- During 1925- Laws ban opposition parties & trade unions
- 1926- All local elections abolished
- Elected Mayores replaced by Fascist officials
- Opposition deputies expelled from Parliament
Terror (2)
Special Courts-
- Try political crimes
- No trial or Jury
- 5,000 political opponents imprisoned up to1943 10,000 kept in'confino'(exiled island around Italy)
- 400 people executed
- Death Penalty for treason- Nov 1925
Fascist Squads
- 50,000 armed militia intimidate opponents- beat victims- destroy property-(est 2,000 killed by 1926)
- Violence reduced after 1925- threat enough
- Became legitimate force'- national militia helping police
(1926- reporting to King not Parliament- authorised 'rule by decree'
Terror (3)- OVRA
OVRA=December 1926 "Law for the defence of the state"-established secret police:
- Power to arrest & hold suspects without trial
- Carry out searches
- tap telephones
- intercept mail
- Acts of violence against political opponents
- 700- full time agents-reliant on network of informers
Decree of Public Security (1926)-control & surveillance anyone based on rumour
OVRA: attacked Freemasons, Mafia
Once Mussolini has established power Fascist terror unnecessary
Propaganda
Propaganda
Mussolini's domestic and foreign policies hailed triumph
- Cinema- 25 Fascist propaganda news reels
- Newspapers: Reporting on crime- forbidden - Gov grants so bias newspapers
- Radio-Praised Mussolini broadcast his speeches in full- 1930- every village=communal radio limited in south and countryside- radios given to schools
- Posters: simple slogans images praising Mussolini (everywhere)
- Rallies- Mass parades organised- impress italians, sense of belonging
- Sport- participation encouraged & spectating (successful teams = boost national pride)
- Ancient Rome: used to justify & inspire Fascist policy "propaganda a substitute for action"
Cult of Personality
Cult of 'ilDuce'- intended t build support- Superhuman saviour- destiny to reform Italy to former greatness
- Supposed work 20 hours a day on Gov business- Left office light on to give this impression
- Duce infalible- Alway right "Mussolini is god!"-poster slogans
- Family man, Horse riding, planting trees, athletic, often stripped at the waist, sking, diving, cars at high speed, airplanes, pictures of him wearing glassed banned- age NEVER mentioned
- Inctulectual writer, poet, cultured man- read all European classics-photos of him playing the violin
Impact of Duce:
Questionable- how many people bought into it- quantitiy made it difficult to ignore: Italians just accepted- he started to believe his own propaganda
Securing control- Economic policy
Eco policy (1922-25)
- Inherited eco problems:
- Large budget deficit
- 500,000 unemployed
- Limited raw materials
- Traditiona N/S divide
Mussolini came to power when italin industry beginign to boom- Claimed responsability for exports doubling (textiles cars agricultural- doubled 1922-5)
- Appointed tresury minister: Alberto Stefani:
- `Limited Gov speding
- Reduced state intervention
- Reduced taxes on companies
- Banned socialis and Cathoilic trade uions- industrialists budges surplus unemployment fell to 122,000
Battle for Lira (Quota 90)
1926- Boom coming to an end: exchange rate for Lira falling= Stefani sacked
By 1926: 150lire to pound- 1927 Mussolini re-evaluated it to 90 Lira to the pound= Short term increased Mussolinis prestige- Long term: damages Italian economy:
- Italian exports more expensive
- Low exchange rate deterred tourists
- worsening the balence of re-payments
Economic Depression -1929 Wall Street crash:
- Large umbers of companies colapsted
- car production down 50%
- Un-employment risen 2 million1933
- Introduced public work schemes- paid by tax: motorways, powerplants electric railways(cycle got people back to work thus increase in emand- money to spend)
Autarky
Mid 30's- War in Europe or Africa inevitable must prepare- aim establish Fascist prestige abroad
- promote industry
- Economy to become self sufficiant
Result of Eco sanctiond League of Nations- after Italys in vaison of Abyssinia 1935;
- Engourages: Steel shipbuiliding- government contracts
- Major companies allowed to merge- Fiat=Car Pirelli= rubber
Success?
- Eco not self sufficiant by war 1940; (problem unsolved)
- Production Slow: Coal, Oil, Iron ore
- Government spending on armaments expensive=deeper debt= Massive cuts military spending & tax increases
Eco- Corporate State
1920's- Mussolini first proclaimed 'corperate state' (new way of organising/running economy)
Theory:
- Corperations for each sector of industry- agriculture/comerce
- Each corporation- Employers & Fascist trade unions
- Employer/Trade union disagree=court of labour (Ministary of Corporations)- dispute resolved
Purpose:-
- Maximise profit- good of nation
- Avoid disputes/strikes as Britain & France
- Allow Business & industrial elite-run industry make profits
Corporate State- Reality
Reality
- Employers- too much power over workers (strikes banned)
- Employers-no provide annual paid holidays- alter pay& working conditions little consultation
- Leader of trade unions- Chosen by Fascist Party- Sided with employers
- Conflicts not solved=Suppressed
- Industrial elite= support Mussolini
- Mass bureaucracy- corrupt officials trivial regulations
Battle for Grain (1925)-Propaganda!!
Mussolini-focus on projects which = power & prestige (industrial) not agricultural
Battle for Grain 1925
- Began in 1925- promote Fascist Power & National self sufficiency
- Traditionally needed to import grain to feed people
- gov grants- enable Farmers buy tractors, fertilisers machinery for wheat production- Farmers guaranteed high prices for grain
Success:
- average harvest increased 5.5m ton p/y (early 20's)- 7m tonn (1930's)
- Grain imports declined- 75% drop (1925-35)
- Appeared success-Mussolini credit- press photographs
Battle for grain -Failure
Failure:
- land in central/southern area unsuitable for such crop- handed over for wheat
- Could not be sustained- (max 2 yr) yield declined years later
- Citrus fruits grapes olives- dropped= decline in agricultural exports
- Tariffs on foreign cereals subsidies agricultural production
Battle for Land (1928)- Propaganda
Land reclamation schemes- Pontine Marshes (50km Rome)- Propaganda show piece
Success:
- Malarial swamps- drained
- Netwrok of small farms set up- owned ex-service men
- Public health improved
- Provided thousands of Jobs during depression
Battle for Land- Failure
Battle for Land-1928
- Land reclaimed- limited- much land lost 1943-35- neglect
- Ag Workers- wage cuts than indus in 1930's= emigration
- Emigration- 200,000 p/y Italians/southerners- to USA- USA stop imigration from 1920= left countryside for towns- cant cope- increase slums Turin && Milan
- Population of Rome doubled
- Mussolini tried to prevent further migration
(Fascist policys- help large landowners rather than landless pesants- pesants need land-families
Law 1922- Parliament- distribute large stated to pesants- Mussolini dropped this- fear of offending landowners- (political supoporters)=n increase in backwardness:
- Richest land owners= 40%+ of land
Limits to control Elites
King:
- Alliance of intrests- Failed to remove M over Mattiotti crisis- need support to retain throne
- Mussolini not remove King- fear of offending elites
- 1930-King= little responsibility
- (King=removed Mussolini-July 1943)
Gov & Judiciary: - Replaced opponents- baristers & Solicitors opposed to Fascism
Army:
- Expanded Armed forces
- Adopted roman salute
- Fascist badge on uniform
- Tension between army & Fascist Militia
Control-Catholic Church/ Lateran Agreements
Mussolin could not control Italy with Catholic oppisition- agreements over 'Roman Question' = increased public support:
- Rstored Catholic Educaion in stateschools
- ncreasing gov payments to priests - secured confidnece of Pope(had previously with drew support PPI-1923)
- Nuteralised support of Church
- (BUT: Fascism didnt neciserrily have support of Vatican)
Lateran Agreements (1929) - ended conflict between church & State
Laterain Accords: Pope recognised Kingdom of Italy and posession of Rome & Old-Papal States V State recogise Popes control over Vatican City & Part of rome:
Pope recieved compo 750m lira cash & 1bn Lira bonds-surrender claim to Rome
Concordat
Concordat:
- Priests could not belong to political parites
- No divorce without concent of Church
- Catholic education compulsory in state schools
- State pay salaries of Clergy
- Catholic youth section independant
- Pope appoint bishops - gov could veto
Outcome:
- Couldnt remove Catholic influece
- Increase popularity of the regime with catholics
- Increased Mussolinis standing as international statesman
Tension 1931- clash, state tried to suppress Schurch sponsored club "Catholic Action"- Rival fascist youth group, 1938 Pope Pius IX regretted relatioship
Women- Battle of Births= Propaganda!!!!!
Battle Of Births (1927)- aim= increase poulation 40m -60 by 1950- contraception banned Youth= Soldiers for armies & clonies -easily influenced: 12 children p/family
Incentives:
- Marriage loans- reduced per child
- Man with 6+ children exempt from taxes
- Healthcare % Welfate benefis
- 1929- Maternity leave
- Prized-most pprolific mothers
Penalties:
- Singles- heavily taxed
- Childless= no jobs & promotions in Gov
- Railways sacked all women appointed since 1915 - exeption war widows
- From 1933- only 10% workforce could be women in public sector (1938- extended to all companies)
battle For Births- Result
Battle of Births = Fail
- marriage remained unchanged
- birthrate declined until 1936 (increased slightly after)
- Population up- 44m (result of emigration control to US & fall in death rate)
Youth
Youth Control Schools-
- 'get em whilst their young'
- 1925- teachers political view= dismissed
- 1929- teachers- swear oath of loyalty to regime
- 1931- Fascist Teachers Association- membership compulsory by 1937 -( compulsory black shirt)
- Curriculum text book replaced- Fascist ideals = Italy forefront of history- Lies!!!:
- Teachers- stress Mussolini's genius
- Portrait in every class room
(patriotism, manliness, obedience & fascist Values)
- School expenditure doubled
- school leaving age raised- 1m children in p/s
- illiteracy fell
Youth Movement- ONB
Opera Nazi Bililla (ONB)- 1926:
1930's membership compulsory-7m joined
Activitys:
- Military training & fascist ideology
- Camping
- Sport
- Fitness training
Girls:
- Sewing
- Singing
- Child Care
Mussolini overthrown= ONB colapsed
Adult Social Life
Dopolavoro- 1925- provide bias activitys Mid 1930- controlled: - NOT COMPULSORY
- All football clubs
- 1,350 theatres
- 2,000 drama societys
- 3,000 brass bands
- 6,000 libiarys
(every village/town= min 1 dopolovoro clubhouse) - 1939 4m members
Pros; Popular- free only lip service= Fascist ideas -physical & military training, focus= good time
Cons: attempt to distract from Social/Eco problems
Foreign Policy-
Mussolini's aims:
- Achieve great power status
- Italian prestige -'lame duck' after WW1
- Italian dominance- Mediterranean, Adriatic, Balkans
- Build Italian empire over seas
- Leadership & Achievements (personal)
- Aggressive & Adventurous foreign policy- divert attention from Eco and failing domestic policy
Britain:= Gibraltar, Suez Canal, Malta, Cyprus = Naval Power
France = Corsica, Tunisia, Algeria & Morocco = Naval power - Both challenge Italy expansion
Corfu August 1923
Corfu Aug 1923
- Ongoing border issue- Albania & Greece
- Italian General & 4 other Italians murdered
- Mussoini Blamed Greece- apology & compo= 50m lira
- Greece- LoN sort out- Mussolini= Italian fleet to Corfu- Shelling Island
- Critisim: Mussolii- 'gunboad diplomacy'
- Victory: B & F- ordered Greece to pay - Success 'Dynamic Fascism'
- Mussolini-Popularity Up - need to maintain good relations with Britain & France
Fiume( Feb 1924):
- Agreement reached with Yogoslavia -Fiume handed to Italy in Pact of Rome
- Popular - prestige
Abyssinia October 1935
Abyssinia (Ethopia) October 1935:
- Not colonised by European powers
- Lacked means to fight back- easy to invade
Aims:
- Imperal Status
- revenge humiliation of Adowa (1896)
- Consolidate Italian position- East Africa
- Destiny of Roman Empire
- Teritory for Italians to Emigrate
- exploit resourece- Oil & markets for Italian Goods
- Divert attention eco problems
- Continued support for Mussolini
- Fascism-Force to rekoned with
Thought: B & F more concrned with Nazi Germany- Sympathetic to Italins Adventures= minimal risk
Abyssinia- Outcome
Outcome:
- Height of his popularity
- War won quickly
- 1,000 casualties & Italian East Africa created
Marked a turning point':
- Budget Deficit increased by 660%
- Abyssinia's fought Guerilla Warfare- Italy maintained army - 250,000 men
- Abyssinia- not rich in resources- no oil
- 1939 only 2% Italian trade with Abyssinia
Locarno/Kellog-Briand Pact
Lacarno Treaties (October 1925):Mussolini- 'Honest Statesmanship' - confirming German Western Boarders - Era stability
Reality:
- Propaganda Exercise - speed boat late- press-
- Only there for few mins to sign and leave
- 100+ jounalists boycotted aperance- protest- Fascist burtality
Kellogg-briand Pact (Aug 1928)
- Britain France USA- War not used as diplomatic Wepon
- BUT: Mussolini- 'absurd proposal' - not meaningfull
- Propaganda -highlight his role - international statesman
Spanish Civil War 1936-1939
Spanish Civil War-July 1936-Wanted to establish Fascist style Gov in Spain
Mussolini sent(Spain):
- 75,000 men
- 950 tanks
- 700 aircraft
Impact: -costly= unprepared for war 1940
- 14bn Lira
- Drain on weapons/materials/resources (1/3 military strength)
- Troops withdrawn-1939
- 4,000 killed - 12,000 wounded
- Britain & France remained neutral
Relations With Germany
Austria (July 1934)
- Wary of Hitlers intenions- Austria (M regarded Italian Sphere of Influence)
- July 1934- Austrian Nazis attempt seize power- assasinating Austrian Prime Minister: Dolfuss
- Mussolini=4 divisions to boarder (40,000 men):
- Determined demonstrate guardian of Austrian independance
Rome-Berlin Axis (November 1936)
- After Abyssinia- Mussilini increasingly associated with Nazi Germany
- Italy- Foreign minister= Count Ciano - Signed Rome- Berlin Axis= Mutual support for each other
- Extended to Anti-Comintern Pact (November 1937)
Anschluss (March 1938)
Anschluss March 1938
- Mussolini didnt intervne- Germany united with Austria- March 1938
- Still angry with Britain & France- Abyssinia -didint want to jepordise relationshipItalians= unhappy- Germany Neigbour= Mussolini popularity slumped
- Mussolini didnt intervene = German occupation of Prague- March 1939 - Fear & Admiration
Pact of Steel (May 1939)
- Italy= commit all armed forces if Germany became involved in War
- Hitler not want war for another 3 years
- Mussolini- knew of plans invade Poland
- Italy not in position to fight
- War could be unpopular
- Would not be involved for Italian interests
War (1940-1943)
Decision to fight with Germany (June 1940)
- Outbreak of War= Sept 1939
- Mussolini declared Italy= 'Non-Beligerant' - Italians= happy
- 1940- Fall: Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg & France= got to join war (or =) Europe dominated by Germany
- War= Chance: military glory
- Neutrality= Mussolini pathetic
Conduct of War (1940-1943)
- Hope to achieve cheap- significant territorial gains
- Military campaign= Disastrous failure
- Thought war over in 6 months
Economy
War & Economy
Lacked essential war Materials= Oil, steel & explosives= dependent on German coal
Problems- large scale armaments production:
- Fall in imports- coal
- Shortages of oil
- Bombing- industries & homes= low morale
- Agricultural production= fall- lack of machinery & people (conscription)= Food Shortages = Rationing (150g bread p/d)
- Shortages: Clothes, shoes, coffee, petrol, soap
- Increase taxes
- Increase Strikes- long hours
- Wide spread anti-Fascist Graffiti- increase demands -end war
- Soldiers Stories= lack of preparation, shortages materials & clothing & tanks, poor leadership
Military
War & Military
- Under strenght divisions
- Dated weponry
- Inadiquatly armed tanks
- Navy lacked= Aircraft &fuel
Result= FAIL
- Greece (October 1940)= Disaster
- Battle of Taranto (November 1940)- loss 5 warships
- Britain defeats Italian forces=1941- North Africa
- 400,000prisoners= LOSS OF ALL ITALIAN COLONIES
- Italian tropps sent to fght Russia
- Declare War USA December 1941
- War turn against Germany = El Alamein (Nov 1942) & Stalingrad (Feb 1943)
Outcome July 1943
Outcome July 1943
- Fascist regime crumbles - Eco & social chaos
- Mussolini lost support of elite & leading Fascists
- July 1943- US invade Sicily & Rome bombed
- Fascist Grand Council- vote to end Mussolini's rule
- Dismissed by King July 1943
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