History - The Reform of Parliament (Theme 1)

• Out of a population of 10 million in England, Scotland & Wales, less than half a million (5%) could vote
• In the counties (rural areas), only those with freehold property worth 40 shillings a year could vote
• In the boroughs, a wide range of qualifications applied, but usually one had to own proporty or pay local taxes or rates
• The system dates back to medieval times. Therefore, many new industrial cities such as Manchester and Leeds did not have their own MP

• By 1928 all men and women aged 21 and over had the right to vote
• Thew only significant difference between the franchise in 1928 and the franchise today is that the voting age was further reduced to age 18 in 1969
• By 1928 Britian was therefore far more democratic than it had been in 1780

• The 1832 Reform Act extended the franchise so that 1 in 5 adult males (20%) could vote
• The 1867 Reform Act extended the franchise so that 1 in 3 adult males (33%) could vote
• The 1884 Reform Act extended the franchise so that 3 in 5 adult males (60%) could vote
• The 1918 Reform Act gave the vote to all men over the age of 21 and to women over the age of 30 if they were a householders or married to one
• The 1928 Reform Act (Equal Franchise Act) gave women the vote on the same terms as men

• During 1780-1832 Paliament was dominated by two parties with strong landowning interests, namely the Tories and the Whigs
• During 1832-67 the Tories evolved into the Conservatives and the Whigs into the Liberals, largely due to the extended franchise
• After 1867 political parties had to take more account of working-class opinion and reporting in the press
• The 'Labour Party' emerged during the 1880s and 1890s, existing formally as a professional party from 1906

• 1780 - c. 490,000 men / 11% of men / 0% of women / 5% overall could vote
• 1832 - c. 800,000 men / 20% of men / 0% of women 
• 1867 - 2 million men / 33% of men / 0% of women
• 1884 - 5 million men / 50% of men / 0% of women
• 1918 - 13 million men / 100% of men / 8.5 million women / 60% of women
• 1928 - 14.5 million men / 100% of men / 14.5 million women / 100%

• Reform leaugues and Reform Unions
• Party interests within Parliament
• Political leadership in and out of Parliament
• Specific circumstances (e.g. impact of revolutions, wars)
• Expansion of education and literacy
• Growth of a radical and popular press
• Influence of radical intellectuals
• Extra-parliamentary agitation

Radical reforms, 1790-1819

Unrest of 1830-31

• 1832 Reform Act

Chartist movement, Newport Rising

• 1867 Reform Act

Emergence of British socialism

• 1884-5 Reform Act

• 1918 Reform Act
• 1928 Reform Act

• 1775-83: War of American Independence
• 1792-1802: French Revolutionary Wars
• 1803-15: Napoleonic Wars
• 1808-33: Spanish American Wars of Independence
• 1821-32: Greek War of Independence
• 1839-42: First Opium War (Britain/China)
• 1853-6: Crimean War
• 1856-60: Second Opium War (Britian/China)
• 1861-5: American Civil War
• 1870-1: Franco-Prussian War
• 1877-8: Russo-Turkish War
• 1879: Anglo-Zulu War
• 1899-1902: Second Boer War
• 1912-13: Balkan Wars
• 1914-18: First World War

• 1765-83: American Revolution
• 1789-99: French Revolution
• 1821: Greek Revolution
• 1830: July Revolution (France)
• Belgian Revolution
• Polish Revolution
• 1848 year of revolutions
  • French (successful)
  • German states (defeated)
  • Italian states (defeated)
• 1857: Indian rebellion v. Britain
• 1870-1: Italian/German unification
• 1905: Russian Revolution
• 1911-12: Chinese Revolution
• 1917: Russian Revolutions

• Before the 1832 Reform Act, the system of representation had changed little since medieval times, despite population growth 
• Many boroughs (urban areas) that had thrived in the Middle Ages had since declined but still elected MPs 
• The most notorious was Old Sarum, which had only seven voters! 
• Over 50 seats had fewer than 50 voters each. These were the so-called ‘rotten boroughs’
• By contrast, many modern industrial cites like Manchester & Leeds did not have an MP
• Many small boroughs were dominated by local landlords or businessmen and were known as ‘pocket boroughs’ – votes & even whole seats were bought & sold! 
• More than half of seats were uncontested

• In 1785 William Pitt the Younger  proposed to disenfranchise 36 of the worst rotten boroughs and redistribute their 72 seats to London & the most populous counties, but his bill failed to secure majority support in Parliament
• The 1832 Reform Act abolished both MPs in 56 rotten and pocket boroughs, whilst 30 boroughs lost one MP. Twenty-two new boroughs with two MPs were created, including Manchester, Leeds and Bolton
• However, about 70 pocket boroughs remained
• The 1867 Reform Act deprived 38 small boroughs of one MP and 4 other boroughs lost both MPs because of corruption. Nineteen seats were given to the larger boroughs and 26 to the counties
• The Redistribution Act of 1885 saw all boroughs with fewer than 15,000 votes lose both of their seats, whilst those with fewer than 50,000 lost one seat 

• During the 1700s and 1800s most members of the upper & middle classes thought that democracy was dangerous & would lead to  mob rule
• One way of avoiding this was to give more votes to those deemed to be intellectually or morally superior!
• In 1867 an attempt was made by Disraeli to introduce ‘fancy franchises’ – an extra vote would go to those with professional qualifications or a university degree. This failed, however
• Even after the 1884 Reform Act, 7% of the population had more than one vote – e.g. graduates of Oxford, Cambridge and London (the elite universities)
• Plural voting was not completely abolished until 194

• As politics became more professional during the 19th century, the emphasis changed from avoiding democracy to ensuring that the electoral system worked in favour of one’s own party
• The Conservatives & Liberals knew where their core support lay and tried to ensure that constituency boundaries were set to maximise their support
• The 1832 Reform Act enfranchised many business owners & shopkeepers in cities like Leeds & Manchester; in general these were more likely to vote Whig than Tory 
• The redistribution of seats in 1867 favoured the Tories by giving more seats to the Tory-dominated counties
• The Redistribution Act of 1885 created many suburban constituencies out of the larger towns and cities. These were more likely to vote Conservative and still do today!

• At a time of growing democratisation the wealthier members of society had two further ways of holding onto power, namely by intimidation or corruption
• Until 1872, elections were carried out openly by raising of hands, which enabled landlords & employers to put pressure on their tenants & employees
• This was ended by the Ballot Act of 1872, which was passed by Gladstone’s Liberal government 
• The wealthy were also able to spend more on campaigning & bribery than poorer candidates. The Corrupt & Illegal Practices Prevention Act of 1883 set maximum limits for expenditure on elections

Special Franchises

• Disraeli tried to create 'fancy franchises' in 1867 but did not succeed
• The aim of fancy franchises had been to give more votes to the educated
• After the 1884 Reform Act, 7% of the population still had more than one vote
• These went to graduates of Oxbridge & London; also occupational voting

Voting

• In rotten & pocket boroughs, local landowners often controlled the seat
• Secret ballot only introduced with the Ballot Act of 1872
• In 30 years after 1832, still only about 50% of seats were contested
• Before 1832 seats were oten bought 7 sold & only 30% were contested

Election Campaigns:

• Before 1832 around 25% of electors came under landlord influence
• Electors were often bribed or plied with food and drink; even kidnapped
• The Corruption and Illegal Practices Prevention Act was introduced in 1883
• Each candidate had one paid election agent who had to provide accounts

Constituencies:

• Many industrial towns & cities gained seats in 1832; more suburban seats from 1885
• Before 1832, 50 seats had fewer than 50 voters each - rotten boroughs
• 1832 Reform Act abolished 145 rotten & pocket borough seats, but 70 pocket boroughs remained
• In 1885 all boroughs with fewer than 15,000 voters lost both seats

• The 1867 Reform Act had enfranchised male borough residents owning or occupying houses if they had been resident for a year or longer, and male county residents leasing land worth £5 a year, or with property of a rateable value of £12 per year
• This had effectively given the vote to the 'respectable' working class in boroughs & to rural farmers
• However, in addition to all women, agricultural labourers in the countryside and casual or transient workers in the towns & cities were still excluded
  

• The 1867 Reform Act had created an uneven situation, giving the vote to all householders in the boroughs but not in the counties: a glaring anomaly

• Gladstone & the Liberals were in power & believed that (a) this ineuqality had to be rectified & (b) that enfranchising rural miners & agricultural labourers would benefit their party

• There was relatively little external pressure on this occasion; the reform was backed by the Conservatives on the grounds that there would also be a Redistribution Act

• The franchise was extended to all householders in the countryside who had been resident for a year as well as to £10 lodgers: same as in boroughs

• 2.5 million new voters (mainly rural) were added; 60%  of the adult male population could now vote

• However, plural voting still took place. Graduates of Oxbridge & London & Professionals with property in boroughs where they did not lice had more than one vote - 7% of the electorate were still plural voters

Changes in the Franchise overall:

• 1832 - Increased from 11% of men to 20% of men
• 1867 - Increased from 20% of men to 33% of men

Changes to borough Franchise:

• 1832 - 145 borough seats abolished; universal £10 qualification
• 1867 - One -year residency qualification & £10 lodgers enfranchised; compounders included

Impact on Parties:

• 1832 - Whigs-Liberals dominate 1832-1874
• 1867 - Conservatives lose in 1868 but win in 1874

Change to county Franchise:

• 1832 - Chandos Amendement adds £50 farmers to 40-shilling freeholders
• 1867 - £5 leaseholders and those with property rateable value of £12 enfranchised

• The Conservatives under Lord Salisbury were concerned about a further extension of the franchise & the Tory-dominated House of Lords rejected the Liberal Electoral Bill early in 1884
• The Bill was passed later in the same year, however, because Lord Salisbury gave his backing to the Reform Bill once had also secured a Redistribution Bill
• The Redistribution Act, Passed in 1885, carved a large number of suburban constituencies out of large urban areas; London increased from 22 seats to 62 

• The Reform Acts of 1832, 1867 and 1884 had not brought about a democracy within Great Britain
• Before the Reform Act of February 1918, about 40% of men and all women were excluded from the franchise
• The men excluded were mainly working class, including those who did not have a one-year residence qualification, sons living with parents, and servants living with their employers
• Women had been excluded for mainly prejudicial reasons related to perceived gender differences in character & roles

• World War One changed attitudes towards women & working class men, making arguments in favour of excluding them from the franchise seem petty
• Women contributed massively to the war effort, especially in the munitions industry, a process hastened with the introduction of military conscription in 1916 which took more men to the front
• By the end of the war, 60% of those working in shell factories were women
• Lloyd George, PM from December 1916, was one of many who were now in favour of votes for women & for all men