Civil Rights under Kennedy 1961-63

Background

Kennedy experienced discrimination in own life, Did not make an enthusiastic supporter of civil rights agenda. In campaign to become President, showed more interest in the issue, 1960 pledged to help blacks if he was elected, declared racism was immoral.

Why was Kennedy slow to act on Civil Rights?

• Victory in 1960 election was narrow 
• Civil rights at bottom of voter concerns 
• Legislation unpopular with Southern Democrats 

What did Kennedy do to improve civil rights?

1. Appointments- Appointed 40 blacks to top positions, 5 black federal court judges (Thurgood Marshall).

2. Justice Department- Brought 57 cases against obstruction to Black voting.

3. Symbolic gestures- Invited more blacks than other President's to the White House.

4. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)- aimed to ensure fair employment for federal employees and companies that had federal contracts.

5. Housing- Feared pushing of this bill would prevent other legislation being passed. 

6. Civil Rights Bill- Febuary 1963 moderate bill aimed to guarantee desegregation in public places, black votes and more rights. Bill stuck in Congress.

How did Kennedy react to the civil rights movement? 

Throught 1960s the Black movement became increasingly active. 

• The Freedom Rides 1961- aimed at desegregation of transport across the South. Kennedy reluctant to act due to Southern Democrats. Pressure forced Interstate Commerce Comission ruling terminals and buses should be intergrated. 
• Voters Registration 1961- SNCC help voters register in Mississippi 1961. Kennedy reluctant to help as SNCC being provocative.
• University of Mississippi 1962- University didn't want him, forced to do so through legal action. 500 Marshalls sent to protect him, National Guard and Army sent too. 
• University Integration in Alabama 1963- Alabama last state to desegregate universities. Kennedy sent troops, marshalls and national guard. Kennedy declared inequality immoral. referencing the Bible and US constitution. 
• Birmingham, Alabama 1963- Protestors against segregation attacked, Kennedy sickened by pictures. Justice Department sent to negogiate settlement- public facilities desegregated and black employment improved.
• March on Washington 1963- Kennedy opposed to the march as saw as criticism of civil rights record. Fear it would jeopardise his Civil Rights Bill. 

The emergence of Black Power

Early 1960s not everybody agreed with King's peaceful approach. Nation of Islam, attempted to provide an alternative to the Christian religion. Aimed to increase black self-esteem, keep black and whites separate and to improve black American's economic position. 

Malcolm X saw black people as Africans rather than Americans and argued there was little point in trying to integrate into a white society seen as corrupt and racist. Very critical of life in North, argued worse than South. Racism in North hidden and attacked northern liberals as hypocrites. 

Rejected non-violent approach of King. Saw self-defence against white aggression as legitimate. 

 Assessing JFK's record on Civil Rights

Record on Civil Rights mixed. Very good at making symbolic gestures at no political cost. Did promote greater appointments of Blacks across Federal government.

Used federal troops to aid desegregation of transport and universities in the South, forced by the Civil Rights movement.