Changing nature of the Royal Navy
- Created by: Hbrandxx
- Created on: 15-04-18 08:32
1. How did the role of the Navy evolve in 1763-191
The significance of changing ship types
Naval tactics
- Changed during 'Age of Sail', main objective went from pulling enemy vessel to carrying rows of canon/sinking enemies.
- In battles, fleets approached enemies in a long line which: enabled sustained bombardment, avoid friendly ships firing each other, reduced exposure of sterns to enemy, better speed.
- Battles were only decisive if a fleet gained positional advantage- sail across enemy line.
- Broadside attack: more firepower, avoid friendly fire, protect sterns of middle ship, faster.
- British captains trained to adopt hyper-aggressive tactics e.g. engage at close raneg.
Ship types
- 'Ship of the line' was main ship for ***** battle, naval strength = n.o of ships of the line.
- Rating system depending on number of guns/manpower; most were 3rd rate, 80% in 1814.
- Outpaced rivals- culminated in Battle of Trafalgar 1805, defeating Franco-Spanish.
- Despite n.o of ships of the line, less effective outside of pitched battles- couldn't be used for patrolling/destroying enemy trade (frigates 5/6th rate did this due to speed).
2. How did the role of the Navy evolve in 1763-191
- Despite growing superiority in EU wars, other nations used frigates against them (French/US).
- Highest British merchant losses of Napoleonic wars= 619 ships lost in 1810 by French.
The development of steam power
- Finished Napoleonic wars in 1815 w/214 ships of the line + 792 frigates: big reduction.
- Only 58 ships of the line in 1835- still able to retain supremacy over oceans as no other powers embarked on a ship-building programme.
- Position of naval hegemony meant there was little desire to change ship types- had wooden sailing ships with armed canon (most powerful warships).
- Despite trials of steam propulsion, had little impact on ships of the line/frigates as early steam engines were slow/unreliable and needed a lot of coal.
- Opium war w/China in 1840 used Nemesis, able to tow more powerful sail ships.
- Major innovation- more powerful propeller screw propulsion 1830s and steam engines could be used in battle for greater manouverability: 1st steam-propelled frigates in Britain 1843.
- French realised potential of them quicker, launched 90-gun Napoleon 1850 signalling end of 35 years of low-cost naval supremacy for Navy + start of naval arms race.
3. How did the role of the Navy evolve in 1763-191
New technology
- 1820s: shell firing guns w/flat trajectory made by Paixhans: French began to fit them from 1841 + Navy copied as they could destroy wooden ships.
- Iron plates fitted to counter guns on wooden ships: 1st ironclads was French warship 1859.
- Admiralty commissioned all new ships w/ironclads starting w/HMS Warrior 1861.
- HMS Devastation in 1873 was most significant as it symbolised a turning point in maritime history whereby traditional sailing techniques used no longer.
- Devastation needed deep-water ports as it carried 1,350 tons of coal.
- End of age of sail affected network of ports: previously used for stopping points for sail ships but vital for steamers + eliminated their advantage of superior seamanship of sailors.
- Age of steam negated this= technological superiority was more important than skill, 1870s + the naval strength was the number of ships a country could produce.
- This allowed powers w/limited maritime tradition but advanced industrialisation to rpoduce strong fleets e.g. Japan and Germany.
4. How did the role of the Navy evolve in 1763-191
The desire to maintain naval supremacy
- Sought to retain position as pre-eminent naval power/maintain 2 power standard.
- Naval defence act 1889: committed to 10 battleships, 42 cruisers etc costing 21.5mil in 1893.
- John Fisher introduced modernisation programme- scrapped old warships + resructured fleets: intent to end arms race with warships, resulted in HMS Dreadnought 1906.
- Fisher's aim of ending arms race by deterrence failed: Germany, US, Japan started to produce their own dreadnoughts, their global dominance had reduced.
The growing role of commerce protection
- Navy struggled for men due to bad living conditions- relied on liberal use of impressment.
- Adopted 'blue water' policy: merchant fleet + Navy seen as mutually sustainable, trade routes safe for English merchants by capturing enemy merchant ships.
- British merchant shipping provided thousands of skilled sailors to Navy= trade profits increased revenue to the Exchequer indirectly funding expansion of Navy (supported by Navigation acts).
- Role of Navy went from mutually benefitial exchange of protection for manpower w/merchant ships to ultimate guarantor of British free trade: vital role in developing commercial interests.
5. How did the role of the Navy evolve in 1763-191
The Slave trade: protection and suppression
Slavery and the slave trade
- 18th century: most lucrative trade for UK shipping (150 ocean-going ships leaving anually).
- Slave economies of West Indies= important source of income.
- 4 major wars w/France 1756-1815: fleets sent to W.Indies after invading each others colonies.
- Pro-slave trade called it 'nursery' of the navy as experienced sailors recruited from slave ships.
- Abolitionist Clarksn said in 1778, only 2,329 of 5000 leaving Britain on slave voyages returned.
- Abolitionists succeeded as slave trade abolished in1807: navy= slavers enemy.
Early efforts to disrupt the slave trade
- Few resources could be spared to enforce legislation: new squadron made 1808 to stop transatlantic slave trade but only 2 left, wasn't priority for admiralty.
- N.o of slave ships shipped across Atlantic increased frm 80,000 to 135,000 in 1830.
- W.Africa squadron: undesirable for naval officers due to disease (204 of 792 died 1829).
- By negotiations, foreign secretaries used Britain's diplomatic position which allowed Naxy to seize foreign sailing ships.
6. How did the role of the Navy evolve in 1763-191
Royal Navy and the end of the slave trade
- Anti-slave trade operations in W.Africa led to tech developments: 1840s-navy used paddle steamers to follow slaving ships into river systems inaccessible by ocean-going warhips.
- Slavers began to use clipper ships putting W.Africa squadron at a disadvantage.
- 1810-60: Navy freed 150,000 slaves but unsuccessful in stopping slave trade (only saved 10%)
- Slave trade ended when slave ownership was made illegal in Americas in 1833 and US Civil war eliminated market for slaves in south US in 1865= end of transatlantic slave trade.
- Continued on E.Africa coast- Navy applied pressure to Sultan of Zanzibar to end slave markets.
Suppressing piracy and defending British commerce
- 19th century= trade route w/China, E.Indies, India + Eng was major source of British income.
- French threat to their shipping (interferred during Nap wars): only eliminated when Britain had sufficient forces to capture Isle de France 1810 and made naval base of Mauritius.
- Arab pirates threatened shipping from Red sea-Bombay, signed treaty w/sultan of Aden to protect their commerce in 1802.
- Straits of Malacca was a hotbed of piracy: 100 pirate shipes in Phillapines/S.East Asia.
- Opium sales to China increased= suppression of piracy became priority for EIC.
7. How did the role of the Navy evolve in 1763-191
The attack on Algeirs 1816
- Pirates/slavers operated out of Algiers + Barbary states: well armed to capture shipping, prisoners enslaved + rulers of Barbary states grew rich from 10% share.
- Navy was strong enough to intimidate rulers to leave ships but smaller powers vulerable: US gov paid $1mil in ransom to Barbary states 1795.
- Expedition sent to N.Africa to secure treaties w/Algiers, Tripoli and bombardment of Algiers sank 40 vessels, given £80,000 in ransom and freed 3000 slaves) but raiding continued.
- Piracy there continued till France conquered Algiers in 1830.
- Navy assumed role of world's police force: kept role till 1914 (Pax Britannia).
The work of exploration and mapping
- 7 years war saw battles between French/Britain between India, North Us and EU.
- Reliance on ships of the line to fight problems in long-distance conflict but between 1803-15, 233 of 317 Navy ships lost ran aground on dangerous coastline.
Clear that global operations required accurate knowledge of oceans- Admiralty gave high priority to voyages of exploration and mapping.
8. How did the role of the Navy evolve in 1763-191
Cook's exploration of the South seas 1768-71
- Growing importance of increasing Navy's knowledge of world's oceans: Cook appointed and successful in completing circumnavigation of globe 1768-71.
- Unable to take accurate measurements of transit of Venus due to instruments limitations.
- Voyage important as:
- 1- Showed you could stay at sea for 3 years without major life loss to disease w/food supply.
- 2- Proved effectiveness of new tech for making accurate charts- Cook was a cartographer.
- 3- Est. a British claim to new lands in Aus, NZ and Pacific.
- 1st voyage forestalled new territorial acquisitions by Britain's EU rivals.
- After Cook, voyages of exploration more common, Navy captains needed to undertake mapping of uncharted waters.
- 1795- Admiralty est. Hydrographic office to collate reliable charts.
1. Reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases
The importance of the acquisition/retention of key strategic bases around the globe 1763-1914
- Navy's main aim was destruction of France/its allies + w/final defeat of Napoleon, Navy seized most valuable of remote ports to act as bases but territorial expansion was limited due to cost.
- During this period, promotion of free trade/limited intervention was gov approach; wanted to ensure the world's sea lanes were secure for merchant shipping.
- Resurgence of EU powers made naval supremacy unsecure- colonial officials linked British dominance to control of key territories= needed to obtain strategic advantage over rivals.
The retention of Gibraltar 1783
- Port was gateway for British ships to enter Med + separated French Atlantic and Med coastlines (obstacle for France's ability to move supplies/warships between main ports).
- Captured in 1704 + Minorca 1708 from Spain in war of Spanish succession but recovering territory for France/Spain was their main aim and US war/7 years war allowed it.
- 1778- France enter war against Britain to regain W.Indies colonies- got through Straits of Malacca as Britian failed to close it.
2. Reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases
- Position fell further when France secured Spain's entry in war for them supporting Spanish reconquest of Minorca/Gibraltar under treaty of Aranjuez 1779- had 121 ships vs Britain's 90.
- Gibraltar surrounded in 1779 causing food shortage- admiralty send supply convoys.
- British garrison there barricaded itself in castle but lack of food caused them to surrender after 5 month siege 1782.
- 1782- Franco/Spanish mount major assault on Gibraltar w/18 ships of the line but attack failed as British garrison sank 3 of the batteries + garrison held out: retention = ports importance.
- When Navy returned to ascendency, provided staging post in the Med/line of defence.
The acquisition of Malta, Ceylon and Cape Town 1815
- Ceylon had trading ports like Colombo- 1 of only sources of cinnamon (British EIC began to cultivate it from India from 1767 but Ceylon was main producer till 1800).
- HMS Suffolk dispatched w/frigate to capture Ceylon whilst French ordered colonies to ally w/them, dutch colonies surrendered and British installed a governor/acquired cinnamon plantations and yielded £300,000 in goods.
- Kingdom of Kandy inside island wanted territory returned: King was captured due to dissention in court and Browning imposed the Kandyan convention (self-governing)
3. Reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases
- Ceylon annexed as a British crown colony- successive governors concentrated on est. rail network to open up interior for plantation farming.
- Dutch colony at Cape Town had no economic significance but strategically valuable: stopping point between EU + W.Indies so could prevent enemy shipping).
- Navy attempted to capture in 1781 but French fortified it.
- 1795- Navy in ascendency again so seized strategic colonies like Ceylon but was given away in Peace of Amiens 1802 to the Dutch.
- Reoccupied Cape to prevent French there in 1806: maintaining permanent presence.
- Napoleon captured Malta 1798 and Malta asked Britian for help: Nelson blockades Valletta 1799 and French surrender.
- By 1815, the deep-water port meant Malta was useful to be retained but not a major naval base until Suez Canal opening placed it on Britain's seaway to India.
4. Reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases
The acquisition of Falklands 1833
- Est. settlement in 1776 but abandoned during US war: islands used by South Atlantic sealing ships till the united provinces authorised a EU merchant Vernet to found a colony there 1828.
- Both Britain + united provinces claimed sovereignty so Vernet had no financial success: only valuable commodity was seal colonies so confiscated 3 US sealing ships in 1831.
- Concerned for trade prospects so sent ship to reassert sovereignty 1833- Vernet surrenders.
The acquisition of Aden 1839
- Important trading entreport: by 1900s, Arabian coffee there replaced by cheaper coffee from slaves in Dutch E.Indies and French E.Indies.
- Governed by a sultanate that exercised independence from Egypt/Ottoman.
- British interests there 1798 w/Napoleon's invasion of Egypt- French defeated 1801.
- Little British trade in Red sea so no further interest there beyond suppressing piracy.
- Governor of Bombay believed India could only be protected by seizing strength to protect Indian ocean.
5. Reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases
Growing importance of Aden
- Red sea more important after steamship Hugh Lindsay sailed from Bombay-Suez isthmus in 1829, stopping at Aden to resupply w/coal.
- Gov agreed to pay 1/2 costs for 6 voyages per year + EIC approved purchase of 2 steamers.
- Search for coal station 1829, under Grant's orders, EIC troops occupied Socotra 1835 but left when negotiations failed due to Haines (imperialistic/racial superiority).
- Haines arrived in Aden 1837 w/mandate to negotiate use of a coal depot + asked Sultan for full British occupation of port but negotiations broke down as Auckland reluctant.
- President of India Board + foreign secretary Palmerston encouraged Grant to seize Aden.
- Grant dies so deputy Farish sends 2 frigates/700 men to Aden without Gov general of Calcutta's approval: Haines captures port and EIC had to accept their new territory.
- Aden didn't sit on a crossroades of trade routes so future uncertain till opening of canal made it a boom town (on main ship route from India to EU).
5. Reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases
Growing importance of Aden
- Red sea more important after steamship Hugh Lindsay sailed from Bombay-Suez isthmus in 1829, stopping at Aden to resupply w/coal.
- Gov agreed to pay 1/2 costs for 6 voyages per year + EIC approved purchase of 2 steamers.
- Search for coal station 1829, under Grant's orders, EIC troops occupied Socotra 1835 but left when negotiations failed due to Haines (imperialistic/racial superiority).
- Haines arrived in Aden 1837 w/mandate to negotiate use of a coal depot + asked Sultan for full British occupation of port but negotiations broke down as Auckland reluctant.
- President of India Board + foreign secretary Palmerston encouraged Grant to seize Aden.
- Grant dies so deputy Farish sends 2 frigates/700 men to Aden without Gov general of Calcutta's approval: Haines captures port and EIC had to accept their new territory.
- Aden didn't sit on a crossroades of trade routes so future uncertain till opening of canal made it a boom town (on main ship route from India to EU).
6. Reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases
The acquisition of Cyprus 1878
Extending British influence
- Seizing Aden was the logical extensio of naval bases- new bases had little commercial value.
- Seizure of territory justified by need to protect existing territory rather than seek profit.
- 1870s: Palmerston's imperialism was mainstream w/Tories: Disraeli/Salisbury supported increased naval power and territorial expansion.
- Russian Empire seen as greatest rival as it expanded into central Asia.
- Liberals under Gladstone remained committed to less gov expenditure/minimal overseas involvement: better-organised Tories won majoirty 1874 election with Disraeli PM.
Disreali and expansion
- Extended British interests overseas- purchasing canal shares 1875 and 1876= Queen titled 'Empress of India'.
- Aim- limit Russian expansion by supporting powers bordering them: Russia defeat Ottoman and threaten to take Constantinople to get access to Med/close sea to British ships.
- Imperial jingoism- Disraeli persuades parliament to approve £6mil to prepare navy for war.
7. Reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases
Gaining territories from Ottoman Empire
- Ottoman surrendered 1878- peace treaty ceded most of Balkans to Russia.
- Disraeli allied w/Bismarck to force Russians to abandon territorial gains/face war.
- Disraeli secures Cyprus as base in Eastern med so Navy can counter Russian expansion and provide link in chain of British ports on route to India/base to protect stake in canal.
- Ottoman held Cyprus but ceded it- wanted to reclaim territory from Russia w/British support.
- Cyprus convention- island leased to Britain by Ottoman for £92,799 annually by taxation.
- Acquisition of Cyprus= imperialist policy no longer determined by liberal economics, willing to acquire colonies to constrain territorial ambitions of other powers.
- Disraeli's acquisition seen as a diplomatic coup- annexation of Transvaal 1877, invasion of Afghanistan 1878 and conquest of Zululand 1879 all cost money and lives.
Growing support for future expansion
- Gladstone tried to reduce overseas involvement but drawn into conflict w/Egypt to protect canal interests: forced to resign as public was imperialistic.
- Salisbury- imperialist: 1889, huge spending increases on Navy as Tories capitalised on popularity of expansionist imperial policy e.g acquired Malta due to French threat.
- Acquisition of Aden 1839- geopolitical not economic but by 1870s- aggressive expansion w/navy set stage for subsequent arms race amongst great ports.
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