British Empire 1763-1914

What is an Empire?

• A group of countries, ruled over by a single country. The countries ruled in the empire are called colonies

Why is the Empire so important?

• It is rembered for being extensive, long-lasting and far reaching imperial activities that ushered globalisation.
• Began in the 16th centuary (under Henry 8th who commissioned voyages to North America) and flourished and grew dramatically, lasting untill the 20th centuary

British Empire at its height:

• Ruled 63 of the worlds 203 nations
• Covered 13 million square miles - a quater of the earths surface
• Ruled over 500 million people - over 1/5 of the worlds population
• The sun literally "never set on the British Empire" - Streatched across every time zone.

• England officially decleared war on France in 1756
• Started in 1756 and ended in 1763. England and France were battling colonies in the new world ( The Americas)
• The French had control of Canada, But Britain had control over the 13 colonies in America
• The 7 years war ended with two treaties:
  • The Treaty of Paris (1763) - was the most significant for Britain. The British were awarded Canada, Louisiana and Florida, removing the European rivals and opening up the North of America for westward expansion.
• However, victory had been expensive - government debt was 157% of GDP. Government Debt rose to 260% of GDP in 1821

• Although Britain had earned a reputation as a world power with a strong navy following the 7 Years War
• Britain struggled to pay for the merican War of Independance
• Tensions had been building the 13 colonies sought their indepenance from British rule in 1775. France joined the conflict in1778. French assisstance helped force the British to surrender in 1781, The Americans had effectivly won the independance.
• On September 3rd 1783, Great Britain formally recognised the independace of the US in the Treaty of Paris. At the same time Britain signed a separate peace treaty with France and Spain (which had entered the conflict in 1779), bringing  the American Revolution to a close.

• The French revolutionary wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802, which resulted in the French revolution (1789-1799)
• Britain feared potential political changes as a result of the French Revolution (Execution of Louis xvi and his wife)
• Britain and other European countries were involving in suppressing the potentual crisis and durastic change in Frances power ultimatly, Britain sought to up hold a balance of power in Europe that would enable them to affirm their control of the seas.
• They wanted to extend their colonial conquests, and to achieve predominance as a trading and manufacturing nation both beyond Europe and on the continent

• Napolean Bonaparte came to power in 1799
• He oversaw a period of French domination over most of continetal Europe.
• Napolean had inherated a republic of chaos. 
• Britain involved itself in the Napoleonic wars again for trying to supress the power of France for it's own personal gain
• The British secured a Victory in 1805 at the battle of Trafalgar, which consequently secured British control of the seas and prevented the invasion of Britain itself by Napolean
• Britain finacially supported others such as Spain and Portugal, who had also come under threat of Neoplean.
• Britain felt a need to protect their allies

• Protectionist = Taxes on imports and exports designed to protect domestic producers, by restricting or prohibiting the sale of foreign goods
• Mercantilism = A policy of government intervention to ensure that the value of exports is more than the value of imports

What changed and why:

• These policies stifiled trade and alienated colonies, and was the reason behind the American War of Independance (High Taxes)
• Overtime a policy of free trade was adopted, which aimed to increase the volume of trade by reducuing taxes. This greatly helped British merchants
• Overtime Britain was no longer content with it's economic power. They and other European powers realised that power also came through owning land (geopolitics)

• Slave Trade began in the 16th centuary till the early 19th centuary
• Slaver vessels set sail from english ports loaded with manufactured goods (guns and textiles)
• Manufactured goods were traded for slaves at West African poerts. Slaves travelled from Africa to the Americas (Middle passage)
• Slaves were sold to those in the west indiesand worked on plantations. Slavers took the reaw materials and loades them on to their ships and set sail back to their home ports
• Slavers sold raw materials such as sugar and cotton for a large profit in and aroung Europe

Thomas Layland (Banker)

• From: Liverpool
• Boat Name: Lottery
• Cost to sail: £2,307
• Values of goods on board: £8,326
• How many slaves did he get: 453
• How mush did the slaves sell for: £22,726
• Profit: £12.091
• Did this 3 times a year and reinvested the money in to Britain

• Many Ships were first purchased by traders with loans from the bank, which in turn meant bankers and members of the gentry were investing in and benefiting from the slave trade.
• The governement also benefited from taxes and tarrifs useing this money to finance the Royal Navy and fighting the European wars
• Conditions on the plantations were so bad that African Menand women frequently died from being over worked, before they could reproduce, menaing there was never a shortage in demand for new slaves
• Britain continued to re-invest into it's own economy with the money made from the slave trade

• Too many members of parliament (gentry) were involved in the slave trade and financial interests in planations

People Involved / Supported the Slave Trade:

• William Beckford (x2 Mayor of London)
• Sir Richard Neave (Govener of the Bank of England)
• Church of England (Owned 400 slaves and owned plantations in Barbados)

Quakers:

• Organised the first moverment in 1783 
• Major break through was achieved in 1787 when they joined forces with the conformist groups
• Persuaded William Wilberforce to speak in parliament
• Organised the grass root campaign

Toussaint Loverture:

• Was very sucessful with his rebellion in Saint - Domingue

William Wilberforce:

• Was brought in during the grass-root campaign
• Launched the parliamentary campaign in 1789
• Wilberforce faced bad timing with a french revolution taking place due to a lack of money
• Parliament often voted against Wilberforces bills

The Slave Trade Act: (Summary)

In 1806, the abolitionists capitalised on the anti-french credentials by introducing the foreign slave trade Bill. Which prohibited the British selling slaves to the French. The bill had widespread support and the abolitionists used the support during the general election in 1806, where many of the abolitionist MPs were elected. Resulted in the House of Parliament passing the Slave Trade Act. The act was quite complex due to influencing factors. Then changing economic factors at the turn of the centuary influenced the end of trade.

• In 1776, Adam Smith published 'inquiry in to the nature and cause of the wealth of nations'
• He openly attacked the principle of mercantilism
• He argued that import and export tariffs prevented trading
• He proposed to remove the barriers to trade, suggesting it would increase overall, wealth and believing trading could benefit
• His book was popular amoung leading economic thinkers, but adoption of free trade as a government policy was slow, This was because:
  • Tariffs that existed were designed to give British goods a comercial advantage
  • Parliament was dominated by wealthy land owners who often had a direct interest in protecting incomes of their estates and benefiting from the imposition of high taxes and tarrifs paid by other countries

• Was the son of a textile manufacturer, was a strong believer in Free Trade and founded the conservative party in 1834.
• His conservatives comprised of the old tories (who were opposed to free trade) and peelites, (who supported it)
• In the 1841 election, the conservatives secured a majority and Peel became primeminister. Under Peel, laws supporting mercantilism and protectionism were dismantled
• Over 1200 import tariffs were abolished between the years 1842 - 46
• By the mid 19th centuary, Britain was well on it's way of working towards free trade, much to the disappointment of wealthy landowners and the british gentry.

• Leading economic thinkers began to question the principles of mercantilism and in 1776 Adam Smith. Adam Smith openly attacks the mercantile system and argued that import and export tariffs are what is negatively impacting trade in Britain. Felt that removing barriers to trade will improve Britain’s trading.
• Britain’s trade policy's triggered a he America’s as well in tension in Ireland. The Irish catholic’s who worked on the land remained poor and and were frustrated with the restrictions on Irish trade. Many demanded Free Trade.
• In 1778, volunteers protested in Dublin with a canon. In 1779 the government consulted Adam Smith about Free Trade. Granting Ireland Free Trade was seen as very necessary to avoid conflict and not result in the collapse of prices of agricultural goods due to the massive demand during the many wars.
• When the war with France ended in 1815, the strength of protectionist policies was seen with the passage of the corn laws. The political landscape had changed by the 1830s as the whigs were in control and were involved in the passage of key legislation
• Robert Peel was a strong believer in Free Trade, he also founded the Conservative party. Under him, laws supporting mercantilism and protectionism were dismantled and many import tariffs were abolished between 1842-1846

• Mercantilism was closely associated with protectionism, which discoraged foreign involvement in trade and encouraged their own merchants to trade with only their colonies.
• Britain passed the Navigation Act in 1651 and 1673 to protect british interests and govern trade. These laws relfected a belief that coonies existed to supply their 'mother country' with raw materials and to provide employment.
• The Navigation Act:
  • Colonial goods produced for exports could only be carried on english built ships and english ship owners
  • Certain goods had to be shipped to an english port even if they were to be exported to another country
  • European imports to British colonies also needed to land in English ports and then be reshipped onwards
• These laws prevented the development of sophisticated colonial empires. Britain and it's colonies took the soft touch approach towards the enforcement of the mercantilist system. However the soft touch approach changed in 1763 when British government decided to create a large standing army in the North Americas.
• Salutary neglect meant that the British tended no to enforce trade regulations too seriously.
• By 1849, Free Trade dominated Government thinking.

• 1841
  • Robert Peel becomes Prime Minister. - Peel was well versed in economic theory and was a comitted 'Free Trader'
• 1842
  • Peels landmark budget was put into practice
  • Abolition of hundreds of protectionist tariffs
  • Sugar duties and corn laws remained
• 1845
  • Potato crop failed in Ireland leading to sever food shortages
  • Peel argued to repeal corn laws
• 1846
  • Free Trade was introduced
  • Abolished sugar duties and corn laws
  • Peel was forced to resign because of great betrayal
  • Ireland had no money - over 7 million people died between 1845 and 1852, Peel pushed for the importation act to go through which the whig supported
• 1849
  • Free Trade dominated government thinking and Navigation Acts were repealed.

• Entreport = A port, city or other centre where goods are brought for importing and exporting, or for other distribution. They are the 'middle-men' for long distance trading.
• Britain and the East India Company (EIC) sought to expand their trade with China as the company had lost its monopoly in India under the 1813 Charter Act.There was a growing market in England for a range of Chinese goods, such as tea and silk
• Trading with China had its problems as much of the water that you needed tocross was owned by the Dutch and they were not happy with the British wanting to trade with China. If the British were to go throught the Dutch colonies then they would be charged high tariffs or even refuse them entry.
• Sir Stamford Raffles located a sparsely inhabited port in 1819. He arranged a treaty with the local rulers and established a trading post - this greatly angered the Dutch. In its first year trade going through Singapore was worth 400,000 spanish dollars, and by 1824, it increased to 11 million spanish dollars.
• Singapore exploded with growth claimed it the status of an entreport. Ships could come in and out without paying tariffs. The tax free status brought in many inhabitance and merchants. 
• British ships offloaded in singapore to start the next leg of the journey to China. The sucsess of Singapore showed many that an empire can run on Free Trade.

• Strict enforcement of Chinese trade laws meant that British merchants remained confined to a small area of canton, as they could not travel up China's arge river network. Trading with China was an integral part of the East India Company (EIC). 
• Britain started trading Opium with China, which could be grown cheeply in India. Opium was very addictive and had previously caused troubles for the Chinese in 1729. The Opium trade exploded with the aquisition od Singapore in 1819. Dispite the ban of Opium in China, 75 tons of opium entered China in 1775, and by 1800s it was 200 tons. By 1839, 2553 tons of Opium was in China and around 4 -12 million Chinese were addictive.
• The Chinese blockade happened in 1839. This was when the Chinese government blockaided the settlement in Canton, holding merchants hostage and demanded hey would surrender their goods. The British refused to surrender, and the first Opium War (using gunboat diplomacy). The British defeated the Chinese, and as a result the navy seized Hong Kong in in 1841.
• Hong Kong at first was a staging post, but was established Entreport like Singapore. Hong Kong had a deep harbour and was an ideal and secure location for large ocean vessels to offload their cargo, without paying import tariffs. The goods could then be transported by costal and river traders for distribution. The population grew substantualy as the city grew, and the british government pressured the Chinese government to expand. 

• The Treaty of Nanking was signed n 1842 (known as the unequal treaties). The Chinese government agreeed to:
  • Pay compensation for the destoryed opium, cover cost of war and late payments had interest of 5%paid on them.
  • Give up Hong Kong to the British 
  • Open the ports in Shanghai to foreign traders
  • Grant Britiish citizens legal protection in China
• Shanhai was at the mouth of the largest river in China. It was already a principle trading port for for China. The Esat India Company had identified in 1832 that it was a promising trading centre. 
• Under the Treaty of Nanking allowed British merchants to trade in Shanghai. The treaty opened up a previously inaccessable teritory. 
• The French in 1848 and Americans 1849 established sattlements in Shanghai
• In 1854, businessmen from these settlements formed The Shanghai Munciple Council. This council excluded the Chinese and they governed the City. Shanghai became an international city, governed by businessmen who wanted to trade. The Opium trade boomed.
• Violence broke out wiht the Taiping Rebellion (1864)and around 20-30 million people died.

• Isthmus =  a narrow ***** of land with sea either side, that acts like a bridge and it links two larger pieces of land together.
• Rothschild = A rich family in the 1760s and funded the British purchase of the Suez Canal. 
• In 1798, Napolean considered building a canal, but was forced to abandon it when surveyers claimed it was impractical. However, in 1846 a group of French experts proved that it was possible and in 1854 Lesseps obtained concession with the Khedive of Egypt to construct a canal in return for a 99 year lease in its operation. Britain, Germany and America would not commit to such as expensive project. The Khedive brought 44% of the shares.
• Construction lasted 10 years (1859-1869) and was built by hand by thousnads of forced labourers. The cost overall was 433 million francs, which cost more than expected due to technical problems and disease. It was risky to invest in this project because there was political problems in Egypt. There were problems with the amount of trade. It was not practicle for sailing ships and large steam ships were used more. 3/4 of the trade going through the canal was British.
• Britain did not like the idea of working in French infrastructure to access India. The opportunity arose in 1875 when the Khedive wanted to sell his stock to meet country debts. Disraeli the british prime minister paid 4 million pounds for these shares and borrowed money from the Rothchilds. was a stratigic aquisition. Acted without authority from Gov.

• Zanzibar was an established Entrepot before the British had got to it. The Sultanate of Oman had made Zanzibar a hub for trading, where goods were brought from coastal traders and then loaded on to ships in the Middle East and India. The tade was manily reliant on slaves and Ivory. The Sultanate moved the capital to Zanzibar, to show its importance.
• British influence over the region increased and in 1815 Britain main concern was safeguarding the Trade route and used the royal navy to stop the slave trade. Were ineffective of stopping trades but intimidating on the sea.
• In 1822, the British persuaded the Sultan to ban the export of slaves from Zanzibar. The loss of the slave trade decreased the importance of Zanzibar. The Sultan kept tariffs low and in 1844 signed a treaty fixing import duties at 5%. In theory Zanzibar would remain an independant islamic state but under British influence.
• German expansion begun in Zanzibar. Karl Peters in 1884 sought to obtain trade concessions to create the East German Trading Company. In 1885 Bismarck (Chancellor) decleared Peters as under imperial protection. In 1887, Bismarck persuaded the Kaiser to invest £25,000 of his own personal fortune, other investors were quick to follow. 
• William Mackinnon, had tried to set up a trading company in 1879, and negotiated a 20% share in the profits but it did not progress as he had no government support.

• Britain was known as the first industrialised country and France, Germany, America and Japan were also quickly developing as major challenges to the British
• The Russian Empire was slow to industrialise and had low productivity, but was still regarded as a great power due to its size of territory and army. Britain was concerned that Russia would expand in to their territory in Central Asia. Russia only had the power to threaten India by land as the British army was based on the sea. This was known as the 'Great Game'. 
• In the past the Chinese had brought weapons off of Germany to stop the spread of the Russian Empire. In the 1880s China commissioned German engineers to build Fort Arthur, a costal fortress, so that they could control the Yellow Sea.
• Japan captured the port in 1894 after defeating Chinese forces based in Korea. Russia persuaded Germany and France to form an alliance to support russian interests. Together the alliance had 38 ships while japan only had 31 and Japan backed down. Legally the port belonged to China and was returned. 
• The British did not want to be defeated in the 'Great Game' and the British Government demanded another port, so that the Navy could see the developments going on at Port Arthur. They gained Weihaiwei and it demonstrated how far British intentions went when intinidating Russia. Britain only left this port when Russia left Port Arthur.

• Naval warfare was dominated with canon firing ships (age of sail)
• By 1763, he Royal Navy had achieved supremacy over its greatest enemies (French, Dutch, Spanish)
• It was not until 1805 with the destruction of the Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar that this supremacy was unchallengeable.
• The Royal Navy was able to maintain its superior position until the early 20th centuary, well into the age of steam.
• 1763-1914 was a time of immmense change for the Royal Navy, driven by the need to destroy European rivals.
• Once they had done this, the Royl Navy played a central role in trade, diplomacy and transforming Britain into global power - This was achieved through aquiring Key naval bases.

• Protection against invasion - Gunboat diplomacy
• Destroy enemy fleets during war time - Small boats are quicker, ships with canons and food are slow and heavy.
• Protect British military forces
• Enables blockades and bombardments of enemy ports
• Raid enemy trade routes - Stop piracy
• Enforce and collect taxes - Controls what countries are selling
• Enforce economic policies - Such as mercanilism and the navigation acts
• Protect the trade routes - Protect the trade networks, protect the east india company

• Ships of the line were used in battle. This is when the largets and best ship goes at the front to hide sll the ships behind it so that the enemy cannot see how may opponents there are.
• This enabled bombadment, with each ship able to fire broadside as the line passd the enemy.
• It avoided friendly ships firing on each other as none of the broad sides would be facing each other.
• Reduced the exposure of vunerable bows and sterns to enemy fire, as only the bow of te leading ship were exposed and it improved the speed and effectiveness of signalling by flags between the admirals ship and the rest of the fleet.
• Between 1763 and 1805 the Royal Navy fought many battles -  The American war of Independance and the Battle of Trafalgar where the British defeated the French-spanish fleet and achieved Naval supremacy.

• 1st rate ships - (Ship of the line) 3 gun decks, 80-120 canons, 600-700 crews - However, they were heavy, slow with less manurability and few were built.
• 2nd rate ships - 3 gun decks, 80-120 canons, 600-700 crews - However, they were heavy, slow with less manurability and were expensive to produce
• 3rd rate ships - 2 gun decks, 64-80 canons, 500 crew, cheep and can be mass produced - However, They did not have mush fire power and less crew. -  Made up 76% of the Royal Navy ships in 1794 but 80% in 1814.
• 4th rate ships - Had less than 64 canons, phased out int he 18th centuary, 200-300 crew - However, they lacked sufficient fire power and not many were built as they hoped never to ue them.
• Frigates - were the 5th or 6th rate ships - Had a single gun deck, they were fast and manuvable. - They were small and fast and could sail close to the land and could operate in small squadrons. Typically romed around looking for enemy ships. were cheap to produce and were appealing to young ambitious young captins.

• Shell firing guns with the flat trajectory needed to hit enemy ships at sea were no produced until the 1820s by the French.
• When the French began to fire these Paixhans guns to warships from 1841, the Royal Navy did the same.
• The news guns could easily destroy wooden ships. To counter the new deadly guns, iron plates were fitted to wooden ships (iron cladding) - The first to use the iron cladding was French warship La Gloire in 1859
• The end of the age of sail eliminated the Royal Navy’s traditional advantages - the superior seamanship of British sailors. The Royal Navy has prided itself of the ability of its crew better than their rivals.
• From the 1870s onwards, Naval strength was derived from the number and quality of ships that a country could produce rather than the differences in seamanship.
• This development allowed powers with a limited maritime tradition but an advanced industrialised economy, in particular Germany and Japan, to produce strong fleets capable of rivalling established Naval powers.

• Life in the Royal Navy was tough, it had cramped living conditions and harsh discipline. The pay was relatively modest - the average pay was £14 a year. There was a high chance of injuries or death in the Navy.
• The Royal protected the seas for the merchantmen as well as capturing foreign merchantmen during wars. - This made Trade routes safer for English merchants.
• British merchant shipping was expected to provide tens of thousands of skilled sailors to the Royal Navy.
• The Government policy supported the expansion of the Navy and to support relationships through the Navigation Acts in 1660s.
• Overtime the Royal Navy developed from a mutually beneficial exchange of protection for manpower with British merchant ships to the ultimate guarantor of Britains Free Trade Empire.
• Royal Navy ships sailed the worlds oceans to support Britains comercial Empire.
• The Royal Navy played a pivitol role in developing Britains comercial interests.

• The slave trade was the biggest and most lucrative trade route for British shipping, with 150 boats leaving Britian each year. Money from the slave trade was used to finace the wars and the British economy
• Supporters of the slave trade argued that it was the nursary of the Royal Navy, as it produced a number of experienced sailors. However many of the trade routes experienced high mortallity rates due to disease, which deprived Britain of their manpower.
• A new squadron was created in 1808 to stop the slave trade. However, enforcement was not a priority for the admiralty. Slavery was still legal in the British colonies and many of these slaves were smuggled into the British plantations. 
• Challenges that had to be overcome: long-time at sea, heat, mosquitos dangerous seas. Some of these challenges were overcome and the squadron grew to 32 warships in 1847.
• Negotiations took place which allowed the Royal Navy to board and seize foreign slave ships equipped as slavers lurking on the coastline.
• The HMS was a steamship that captured 4 slave ships between 1844 and 1846. Clippers began to be used and emancipated 150,000 slaves between 1810 and 1860

• The Navy devoted vast resources to protecting their trade links with China, East Indies and India. The suppression of piracy was a big task.
• French privateers wreaked havoc on British shipping during the Napoleonic wars. The threat from France was only eliminated when the British gathered enough forces to capture the isle de France in 1810. Arab pirates continued to threaten ships on the Red Sea and increased its operations between in the region in response to it.
• The straits of Malacca were a hotbed for piracy - around 100 pirate ships operated around the area. The suppression of piracy in this area became a priority for the British East India Company.
• In 1824, the company agreed with the Dutch to divide the area and introduce Naval patrols. The introduction of the naval squadron, based in Singapore helped to reduce piracy levels, but could not eliminate it completely.
• The Royal Navy surveyors charted the Red Sea between 1800 and 1809.

• Pirates and slavers operated out of the Algiers - they were well armed and organised enough to capture ships and undertake large scale raids. Prisoners were ransomed or enslaved and the rulers of the Barbary states (beys) grew rich from a 10% share.
• The Royal Navy had been strong enough to intimidate the beys into leaving British shipping alone since the 17th century.
• The Royal Navy had bombarded Tripoli in 1675 and the Algiers in 1682. France had bombarded the Algiers three times and Tripoli once in the 1860s. The American government paid $1 million in ransom to the Barbary states in 1795 and 900 Sardinians were taken as slaves in a single raid in 1798.
• In 1816, an expedition was launched following criticism that Britain was more interested in suppressing the slave trade in Africa than Europe. Lord Exmouth secured treaties in these places. Before he returned to England, 200 captured natives were massacred. He returned in the same year with a large fleet and bombarded the Algiers.
• Not knowing that the British were virtually out of ammunition, the Bey of Algiers capitulated the next day, repaying £80,000 in ransom money and freeing 3000 slaves.
• The Royal Navy had assumed the role of the worlds police force, a role it would keep until 1914 in a period that became known as Pax Britannica. They were willing to protect foreigners under British protection.

• In 1768, the Royal Society proposed a scientific exploration in the Pacific. This is because they were interested in the distance between the earth and the sun. The Royal Navy wanted to lay claim to new lands and chart potential anchorages.
• Captain James Cook was scientific minded and was appointed to lead missions to navigate and charter unexplained ocean. He was successful in the circumnavigation of the globe between the years 1768 and 1771.
• Cooks voyages also establishes an important as it established a new claim of land in Australia and New Zealand. After his voyages exploration became more common and the Royal Navy captains were often required to undertake mapping of uncharted water.
• Exploration became more systematic after 1795. When the Admiralty established a hydrographic office to collate reliable charts, with the focus of unfamiliar waters. The first admiralty chart was published in 1801.
• New technology was established to make charting and navigation easier. John Harrison was a clock maker, and used a number of innovative techniques and the most precise craftsmanship and produced a watch that could keep time at sea.

• The control of Gibraltar has become very important as the two greatest maritime powers (Britain and France) wanted it.
• The port was a the gateway of the mediterranean. Which British ships used to enter the med from the French Atlantic.
• Gibraltar was considered a strategic naval base due fact that if one empire gained control who they could block out and let in who they wanted to let in. For example if France gained control of Gibraltar then they could block the British out of the Med, and the British would be permanently shut out.
• Gibraltar and Minorca were key to acquire as Minorca had good ports and was well positioned for a blockade if needed.
• However the French and Spanish wanted Gibraltar and worked together against the British, diplomatic relations broke down resulting in the Treaty if Aranjuez being created in 1779.
• When Gibraltar was blockaded by the sea and the land - food shortages amount the 5000 inhabitants.

• The British arrived in Ceylon, it was split between the Dutch and the Kingdom of Kandy.
• Ceylon was good for trade as it had was one of the only places that could grow cinnamon in the world. Meaning it was very valuable for the East India Company.
• The French were pressuring the Dutch to give up the costal region of Ceylon, leading to the Dutch Royal Family fleeing to Britain and the British Empire for help and protection in 1794. However the Dutch had to give up the land to the British for protection.
• Britain regarded Ceylon as an important asset unlike the other Dutch colonies. In the Treaty of Amiens in 1802 Ceylon was retained. However a fragile peace was established between Britain and the Kingdom of Kandy. However when Governor Brownrigg took advantage of dissension and tried to overthrow the king. Leading to Kandy becoming a self governing protectorate with a requirement to pay tribute to the British costal colony.
• The whole of Ceylon was annexed a British crown colony, with successive British Governors.

• Britain decided to seek 13 colonies in America inorder to stop the french having access to them.
• Britain was seeking a new life with religious freedom and useing the self governing system of salutary neglect.
• Britsh wanted to collect taxes from America - many americans do not agree with this
• Britain attemted to alter the economic relationship between the existing colonies.
• A result was that Americas identity caused a break down in relationships between countries.

• English settlement in America was established in 1607.
• Between 1620-1632, thirteen colonies were established:
  • New England (Rhode Island and Massachusetts) - Farming and Fishing industry
  • Middle Colonies (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersy and Delaware) - major source of wheat and flour
  • Southern Colonies (Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina and Georga) - Main source of the tabacco crop and relied heavily on slavery.
• Many protestants fled Britain because of persecution and found America as a new home. Colonists loyalties were to thier church communities.
• A big pull factor to go to america was the aount of avaliable land and higher wages could be earnt due to a scarce amount of labour.
• Each colony had a governor apponinted to it by the Britsh crown and a legislative assembly. The assembly was responsible for controlling expenditure of the colony.
• Women and slaves in the colony could not vote but men could
• By the 1760s the colonial assembly had overstepped their constitutional position
• Opposition towards the British came from taxation.

• Britain needed to tax America because to maintain their new boarders from the French and to do that they needed an army.
• American territories required a deffence to protect from Native Americans and the French
• The Government needed to provide for 80,000 citizens in French Canada which was no apart of the Empire
• Britain believed that they needed a permanent army of 10,000 men permantly based in North America. Britain had a lot of debt from battles with France and felt the colonists should pay for their defence.
• "No taxation without representation" became a famous phrase agaisnt britains monetary demarnds.
• Agents of the Crown tasked with collecting revenue duties found it harder and harder. Some suffered with tarring and feathering for attempts to carry out their duties.

• Boston was one of the largest colonies - it errupted in chaos and rioting against British taxes.
• British stationed 600 troops in the city in 1768 to preserve the peace and enfrce the law.
• Young boys and men took to rioting on thursday (market day), and a man loyal to the british was suspected of informing others for customs avoidence was sorrounded and trapped in his house by the Thursday mob. He fired into the crown and killed an 11 year old boy
• On the 2nd of March, workers at a rope factory attacked a bunch of redcoats and a street battle followed.
• On the 5th of March, a small detachment of troops fired into a crowd of protesting Bostonians and 5 were killed. - This was known as the Boston Massacre.
• Boston Massacre was not the start of the war of independance because:
  • There was still a significant number of loyalists in the colonies and a lacy of unity between the colonists
  • British were prepared to repeal the Townshend duties and on the 5th of march on the duties were repealed on all except tea. The repeal pleased neutrals.
  • Slaves fought for the Britsh inreturn for freedom.
  • Big gap between the rich and the poor.

• Introduced in 1767 and included duties on: glass, wine, china, lead, paint, paper and tea.
• By the time these duties were introduced, most colonists were already very suspicious and were already opposed to the passage of the Stamp Act.
• Efforts were made to tighten up the collection of taxes.
• The Massachussetts assembly published a denounciation of the townshend duties for violating the principle of "No taxation without representation". Britain was determined to stand firm
• Military presence increased from 1768 to ensure the collection of such taxes.
• The Sons of Liberty were a resistance group against the British taxes - they were active resistance agaisnt the Townshend duties, and led the persecution of the Agents of the Crown attampting to collect the duties.
• This cumulated into the Boston Massacre.

Tea Act 1773:

• British introduced the tea act in attempt to shore up the East India Company, but he act proved the final nail in the coffin.
• Act allowed the East India Company to trade directly with America, rather than obeying the mercantalist principles that everything must be traded through British ports.
• Act was a hope to save the East India Company from Bankrupcy.
• Americans resented the act and boycotts were encouraged

Sinking of the Tea:

• On the 28th of November 1773, the Dartmouth sailed to Boston ladened with tea followed by two more ships.
• 60 Sons of Liberty boarded the three ships on the 16th of December and threw 342 cests of tea into the sea worth around £10,000
• The British response was outrage and to isolate Boston and Massachussetts under millitary control - led to a rebellion of the American colonies

• Act intended to isolate Boston and to force the Patriots into admission, it was the final nail in the coffin for the Anglo-American relations
• The main aspects of the acts were:
  • Closure of the Boston port until the tea was apid for
  • Revising the charter of the colony to allow the governor to appoint and remove officials.
  • Arranging for the transfer of murder traits to England if deemed necessary
  • Giving more power to millitary commanders to arrange the quartering of their troops
• These acts were shortly followed by the Quebec Act dealing with the governance of Canada.
• American patriots pointed to the appointemnt of a governor without an assambly and the limits to trial by jury in Canada by further evidnce of the intent of the British to errode the liberties of Americans to establish rule in all the colonies.

• The Coercive Acts were not successful in issolating Boston.
• In September 1774, the continental congress supported the views of radicals and called upon each colony to determine its own need for troops.
• The day to day running of America largely passed into the hands of the commitiees by early 1775
• Britain decleared Massachusetts to be a state of rebellion in February 1775
• Members of the British establishment had woken up to the danger that they were in and the Earl of Chatham proposed the removal of all duties from the Americans including the ugar Act and recognise the power of the continental congress as an American Parliament.
• The proposal was rejected and Braitain began to prepare for war.

Lexington and Concord

• General Gage knew where rebel weapons were and attempted to sieze them.
• A secret mission was attempted on april 18th 1775 to Concord to destory a millitary store.
• Were met by 75 volnteers at Lexingtin and war was decleared. They pushed into Concord and destoryed the stores, but were fired upon on the way back to Boston.
• British casualties were 273 and 73 killed. and later on 20,000 millita surrounded them.

Bunker Hill

• Reinforcements arrived on May 26th. The British attempted a full frontal assult against the rebels on the 17th june.
• Rsulting in 1,000 British casulaties out of 2,500 soldiers. Americans lost fewer than half of the British.
• It cannot be called a victory as the British were shortly besieged by the new colonial army under Washington and in March 1776 were forced to evacuate for Nova Scotia.
• George the 3rd issued a proclamation to the state to start a rebellion.

• 10th May 1775 - meeting of the second Continental Congress in Philadelphia
• 1775-1776 signaled Bemjamin Franklin a point when too many lines had been crossed and American patriots were ready for a new nation.
• George 3rd knew that his British army would eventually be defeated.
• George Washington was made the Commander of the new Continental Army.
• The formal declaration of independence and establishment of a new formal government took longer for a number of reasons:
  • The delegates were embarking on an interllectual and personal journey towards revolution - The American revolution involved the creation of a new nation and a new system of government and patriots undertook their journeys towards independence.
  • Communication of local commitees and assemblies took place at every step towards independence - took time to reach resolution
  • Members of the Continental Congess worked hard to ensure they reached a concensus before moving forward
• In 1775 America disclaimed that they want to seperate from Great Britain and the Olive Branch petition on the 8th July appealed directly to the King
• The king refused to consider any advances and decleared a rebellion.

• Were a way of creating a national government which was al little like the parlamentary system as the patriots could make it
• In June 1776, Congress appointed a committee of 13 (one for each state) to draw up a consitution for the government to fight the war.
• It allowed the states to work together without sacrificing too much power to a central executive body.
• Important articles included - All powers not speciffically granted to congress were reserved by the states.
• Congress had no right to enforce taxes or regulate trade.
• All states had to agree to any ammendment of the constitution.
• Congress could declare war, borrow and issue money, and draw up treaties and alliances deal with native american affairs ect.
• There was no president, prime minister or cabinet and instead each state had one vote regardless of size. - Only had one congressman per state
• The Articles of Confederation were not approvde by conress until 1777.

• General Burgoyne had penetrated 20 miles into America from Canada, but the force was not met joined by Clinton from the south - He found himself overstretched and surrounded, and eventually surrendered on October 17th. 
• Burgoyne had presented a plan to the King in Feb 1777 which was to lead a combined force of soldiers, mercenaries, Native Americans and Canadians.
• Burgoyne was overconfident and placed a bet that he would be victorious.
• The major weakness in his plan was that it was not coordinated with the other generals who were pushing for different objectives.
• Burgoyne did not wait and found himself surrounded and forced to surrender.
• The peace that was negotiated was fairly favourable to the Britsh. Burgoyne's 5,895 troops were to lay down their arms and march to Boston to be embarked in Britsh ships on the condition that they would not fight again
• Congress rejected this and kept them imprisoned until the end of the war in 1783.

• Benjamin Franklin was sucessful in persuading the French to ally with the Americans.
• The French were motivated by their long term rivalry with Britain regarding territory lost in the 7 years war.
• Treaties were signed between the countries in Feb 1778 and the French decleared war on Britain ine June 1778.
• Spain entered the war as an ally of France 1779.
• The British defeating the French was more important than holding on to the colonies
• The entry of France was very significant in the war.
• The defeat of the British in Yorktown in 1781 was vital for the advancement of the French army.
• By 1781 the spanish forces had cleared British troops for the Mississippi valley.
• After York town, the collateral loss of the American colonies came to be seen as acceptable to the British.

• Following Saratoga, the British decided to move their focus South where they belived there would be no more loyalists, in the hope that they would be able to achieve a victory.
• Clintons assult on Charleston in 1780 was successful and the British were able to move into the interior.
• British Control in 1781 rested on the ability to control Chesapeake Bay and keep Yorktown linked to New York by sea.
• The British defeat at Yorktown was the result of Washington being able to lead and army of 16,000 American and French troops, took seige while the french fllet took control of the bay
• Cornwallis surrendered in october 1781 and reinfrcements arrived 5 days too late. The campaign which culminated in the defeat in Yorktown shows all the reason why the British were unable to overcome America.
• The population in the south did not prove to be loyalist
• After Charleston amd other attacks, General Clinton returned to New York leaving Cornwallis to fight the southern campaign with just 4,000 men.
• The southern campaign relied on Britains ability to hold the ports, but Clintons relief force failed to arrive on time and they had to surrender Yorktown in the 19th October 1781.

 British Strengths

• Had 48,647 soldiers at their command
• Britains economy was well established and diverse
• The Royal Navy had 340 ships - could attack american ports
• Britain had modern methods of finace and could absorb debt easily

British Weaknesses

• Navy suffered form poor funding in 1860s - spending needed to be brought up to date
• During the war Britain still had to meet millitary demands elsewhere in the empire
• Supplying a large army in America was a logistical nightmare
• Main British tactic was to maintain the control of the coast
• British troops were not experienced in America
• London lacked a stratagy and did not tell the tactics they had to the armies.

America Strengths

• Strong and unified leadership in the Continental Congress
• High level of participation in the process of declearing independece helped cementt suppport for the new nation.
• The soldiers were commited ideologically for what they were fighting for. - Had an edge
• They knew the terrain and extreme climates - Better knowledge than the British

America Weaknesses

• Weapons shortage
• Limited economic development in america to support its army
• There was a lack of manpower to spread between production and millitary
• Congress was unable to levt taxes which caused inflation and few were willing to accept paper money issued by them

• Yorktown resulted int he end of the war. The political will in London to hold on had diserpeared.
• By 1782, the British were prepared to leave and accept the loss of the colonies.
• The British commons resolved to end millitary measures agaisnt the Americans in February.
• Peace talks commenced in April under new minastary, led by Shelbourne, whose main concern was to split the Americans from thr French.
• The Peace of Paris was signed by Britain, America, France, spain and Holland in September 1783.
• America had gained its independence.
• Land was divided as Britain had also gained the Bahamas
• America was able to achieve much more favourable terms because of their strong negotiations.
• America and France remained allies

• Resignation of Lord North in 1782 and the formation of a coalition government, shortly replaced by a new ministary ubder William Pitt
• By 1783 the national debt was £232 million. 
• Trade was disrupted with the Europeans and other colonies
• Britain showed remarkable economic resillience. - there was no revolution and political power remained in the hands of the wealthy.
• Britains population continued to grow and consumerism was booming and was reaching pre-war levels
• British exports doubled between 1783-1792
• The loss of American colonies did not harm imperial ventures of Britain, and helped Briatain become one of the richest most powerful country in the world.

• On the 18th January 1788 The first fleet sailed to Botany Bay. (11 ships carrying around 1,400 convits)
• Arthur Phillips was in command of the convicts. - They travelled 5,000 miles over 6 months to serve their sentences.
• Botany Bay lacked fertile soil and water, so soon after they landed they sailed over to Port Jackson, and landing in Sydney Cove to establish settlement.
• Governor Phillip read aloud the act of parliament to the colony - He found his time as Governor very overwhelming

Why did they want to establish a colony in Australia?

• Following the American War of Independance (1775-1783), transportation of convicts could nolonger be sent to America - Leading to criminals being held on the Thames in rotting frigates as prisons were too overcrowded.
• Botany Bay was considered for growing flax for sail making
• British wanted to establish a colony to stop the French settleing there and gaining territory.

Convicts

• In total 732 convicts landed in 1788 
• 543 men, 189 women, 22 children
• 2/3 of the convicts had been sentenced for minor crimes.
• The majority of women were domestic servents,prostitutes or thieves

Others 

• The remaining 600+ were marines (and families), seamen (and families) and civil officers.
• Governor Arthur Phillips relied on seamen and convicts to act as overseers and even police.
• Built ships and maintained food supplies for the new settlement

• Botany Bay was chosen for settlement based on advice given by Joseph Banks  who had accompanied Captin Cook - Even after it was considered unsuitable for cultivation, Governor Phillip revisited Botany Bay before moving to Sydney Cove. - Sydney Cove was still a challenging environment.
• Settlers traded with the aboriginals
• Governor Phillips was tasked with a great deal of ensuring survival of the colony, controlling convicts, building and managing relationships with aboriginals.
• Harsh Physical punishments were performed on the settlements to ensure control. Eg lashings or hangings.
• Initially saw the conony as being self-sufficent within 4 years costing only around £70,000. Food was distributed at the Governors descretion, and a surveyer was called to look at distributing land to former convicts.
• Convicts were allocated work based on their skills, houses and farms were built. 
• The credit of the beginging of the colony should go to  Governor Arthur Phillip because there was hardly a loss of life on the voyage over, as he was well prepeared for the journey. He was also abke to establish a second colony on Norfolk Island in 1790. Food and rations were equally given.

• The Arrival of the Lady Julliana was transporting female convicts in June 1790, ir was also carring new supplies for the colony to show that it had not been forgotten. As many pevious ships sents had not made it due to weather and becoming shipwrecks.
• It was carring 222 female convicts and provisions
• The store ship the Justinian arrived two weeks later followed by the rest of the horrible transport ships, with suffering and dying convicts.
• Around 1/4 of those transported died during the voyage, 150 died soon after landing.
• The arrival of the second fleet increased the chance of survival for the colony as it brought livestock and crops.
• Governor Phillip augmented the supplies further by dispating the Atlantic  of the 3rd fleet to calcutta to buy rice.
• In 1792 Governor Phillips sailed home to retire - He had carried out his orders to keep the colony surving for 5 years.

• The first ship of Irish prisoners raeched the colony in 1791. 
• They were regared as dangerous, partly because some of them were political dissidents (in thestruggle for freedom from Britain)
• Many of them were convicted of theft, many shared greviences gaisnt the English combined with their Catholicism made them an important group on the settlement.
• Many were unable to comprehend Austalias climate and hoped to reach China
• Some tried to escape by sea and were eaither lost at sea or eked out of existenced in the misirible conditions on the coastline.

• Maquarie made his mark in Sydney. His time as Governor was fruitful and productive and significantly better than the rum years that came before his arrival.
• Worked hard to improve the morality and appearance of the colony.
• Whilst he was governor, the first shipment of sliver coins came in 1812, to replace the mismash of currency in Austalia.
• In 1815, the war with Napolean had ended and more convicts were sent to Australia to provide labour for the growing colony.

How did he change the colony?

• Removed the New South Wales Corps following the 'Rum Rebellion'.
• Limied the power of the exclusives and was sympathetic towards the emancipists. He believed that they could transform in to citizens and promised convicts landownership when they were free.
• Sent thos who reoffened to Van Diemans land once the colony had been established
• Thanks to Macquarie people on the colony were less drunk and more respectable. - Pubs were closed down to limit rum consumption.
• Women were given the opportunity to run their own businesses. 

• Convits worked on governments farms, built roads and government buildings.
• Female convicts often wove cloth and served as domestic servents.
• As the colony grew the convicts were assigned to private masters who involved themselves in the wool trade and Whaling. (important source of income)
• They worked 9 hours a day for 5 days a week and 5 hours on a Saturday
• Convicts often worked slow and badly and often resorted to strealing. - Punishments were harsh to maintain dicipline. - Whipping was commonly used.
• The rights of convicts were protected as punishment were only brought out once the ciminal had been infront of a magistrate.
• Women had a misrible time in comparrison to men . This was because they were outnumbered by males and they were often victims of ****. They were designated to domestic work and were traeted unfairly.

• Convicts work system was designed under Governor Phillip and was used by subsequent governors.
• Was suggested that the Aborignal people might serve as a workforce for the colony  and that the convicts would serve their time and then be freed. - However, Londons intention was that convicts onece free would stay in America - However, Maquarie was well known for issueing Pardons and Tickets of leave.
• The First Select Committe Report into Transportation of Convicts was published in 1812 - Was supportive of the colony established by Macquarie although thought that fewer tickets of leave should be sold.
• The first Land Grants in Hawkesbury were made in 1794 and slowly began to expand, it was easier to transport goods. people and crops to as it had a 65km stretch of water from Sydney.
• The land near Hawkesbury river was good and fertile, also a good source of Oyster. This was essential to feeding the growing population on the new settlement.
• Expansions came at the expense of the Aboriginal people causing conflicts between the settlers and the Aboriginals.
• In 1816, Macquarie authorised a mission against Aboriginal people in response to the tension and 14 were killed.

• Maquaire spend far more money than London had initially wanted and planned for, but the colony was shown to be vastly improving.
• Althought the colony was self- sufficient and made a profit under Macquarie, no omney was sent back to London as he reinvested it back into infrastructure.
• He build roads and schools, Barracks and churches, utilizing the skils of architecture.
• A collection of dwellings soon became a city.
• Macquarie townships were developed in Richmond, Castlereagh, Windsor, Pitt Town, and Wilberforce between 1810-1811, A longside Hawkesbury river.
• Wach Macquarie town followed a plan and was built with a: school, church and inn due to fast growing populations.
• In the centre of Sydney, he built hospitals at no cost to the colony.
• A road was built over the Blue Mountains which opened up grazing, which would boost the wool inductry. Leading to the wool industry becoming prominant in Austalia.

• Thought that they have lived in Austalia for 50,000 years
• They have lived in harmony with their harsh environment  and hunted rather than growing crops
• Their lanuage was complex
• They were able to survive the harsh environment (heat), but were not technically advanced
• Mainland aboriginals had fire, those in Tasmania did not but were anble to make fishing materials and build canoes.
• Did not cultivate soil nor have farming equipment, and had yet developed the wheel.
• When British settlers arrived there were between 300,000 - 1,000,000 Aboriginals. However, Governor Phillip only reconed that there were 1,500 Aboriginals in the area that he first explored.

• Found in New South Wales
• 2,500 Aboriginal people were apart of the Eora Nation.
• Tensions soon develped, because alothough they were told not to, the convicts would steal from te aboriginals, who retaliated by stealing convicts tools.
• On the 30th May 1788, two convicts were murdered by the local Aboriginal people and their bodies were butchered and mangled.
• When Phillip tried to Punish the convicts, the Aboriginals did not take it well and showed sympathy towards those being punished.
• Dispite Governor Philips best efforts, Small Pox broke out in Australia, effecting the population of the Eora tribe who had not be exposed to such a disease before.
• Small Pox caused the population to be destroyed in New South Wales, by 50%.

• The Aboriginals in Van Diemans Land were nearly whiped out by Small Pox and there was still an ongoing conflict between the Aboriginal people and the settlers in Tasmainia.
• Diseases were brought by settlers and mass effected the Aboriginals that had no immunity. The diseases were brought over from Whalers in 1803.
• The interia of Tasmania was cleared to make room for farms to produce wool. The original occupants were hunted, starved and poisoned until the population was whiped out.
• Governor Philip proposed a martial law over aboriginals. (to rule over them)
• There were 3,000-4,000 aboriginal people in Van Diemons Land when settlement formed in 1803. Tasmaina faced starvation in its first years of colonisation. Survival rested on hunting Kangaroo.
• Guns were given to convicts who were willing to kill the Aboriginals. - Settlers provided no protection for the Aboriginals.
• The Merino sheep industry boomed in 1827. Creating more white settlement and tensions.
• Aboriginals were made to relocate, but it failed and many were killed. the last Tasmainian Aboriginal person to die happened in 1876.

• It was settled on by the British in 1803, the colony of New South Wales was secure enough.
• Port Risdon, renamed Hobart, was chosen for its easy passage and because Tasmainia was a key area for whaling.
• Under the Governorship of sir George Arthur (1823-1837) a system in New South Wales operated.
• The island was divided in to police disctrict's and magstrates to control the free settlers and convicts. 
• Convicts themselves were made to work through levels of punishments before gaining their freedom.
• There was no early pardons in Van Diemens Land. It was not encouraged for free settlers to mix for convicts. 

• Took place after a period of drought in search of more grasslands and pasture for sheep/ wool industry.
• The sucessful expedition by Baxland, Lawson and Wentworth managed to survey a route over the Blue Mountains. - Baxland reported back that there was enough grazing land to support a colony for 30 years.
• Macquarie instructed the governor to map out a road across mountains in 1814. - Convict labour was used to build this taking only 6 months to build.
• More land was opened up in 1819 beyond the Blue Mountains for settlement.
• There was an abundance for fertile land.
• In 1824 the Australian Agricultural Company was established by the Royal Charter. - Britain was given 1,000,000 acres for farming.
• Convicts worked on the island as cheap labour alongside aboriginal workers.

• The wool industry became the second most important source of income for the colony by the 1830s.
• The sucess of the colony relied on the Whaling and Sealing industry. - Seas off of south-easten Australia were full of Whales and Seals.
• Exports of Whale bones, Whale oil and Sealskins - allowed the colony to buy essentials and goods to allow the colony to thrive esspecially wiht the amount of rum that was consumed.
• Whaling started the arrival of the third fleet in 1791.
• Whaling and Sealing was dominated by emancipists and the Currancy Lads.
• In 1805 Whaling was able to make serious money. Robert Campbell, a scottish merchant, broke the east india companies monopoly on the trade. Selling 206 tons of skins from 13,700 seals.
• Dispite the East India Company trying to seize the ships and cargo, Campbell was successful in establishing Free Trade on skin and oil.
• The sealers simply clubbed the seals to death on the beaches and by 1826, officials were warning Governor Arthur in Tasmainia that the trade was threatened, as there was no limit to seal killing during breeding season.
• Gradually the wool industry became more prominant again.

• The coast was surveyed in 1791 by George Vancouver. 
• Settlement in Western Australia began in 1826.
• The British established a small military post known as Albany.
• The Swan River Company was established in 1828 and it undertook to send 10,000 free settlers in exchange for a large land grant.
• It gave 40 acres for every £3 of assets settlers had.
• The first Western Australia settlers arrived in 1829 at Swan River and Captain Freemantle officially laid claim to all of Australia that did not make up New South Wales from the mouth of the Swan River. - By 1832 it had 1,500 colonists.
• Britain began to see Australia as a source of wealth and opportunity and not just land for convicts.

• The Britsh Government had little actual involvement in the running of the new colony. 
• Macquarie's governorship transformed the rison camp in to a proper colony.
• His investment in sydney proved to be his downfall. - The Exclusivists were not prepared to take his promotion of Emancipists.
• A lot of money was being spent and still a great number of convicts being transported. -  Was no longer an active deterent.
• In 1819, Lord Bathurst appointed Thomas Bigge to see if transportation was still an effective punishment and came to the conclusion that Macquarie had taken the colony the worng way. 
• It was recomended that convicts start to be treated like convicts again, and that tickets of leave should stop.
• A new legislative council was established and a new system of self-government was adopted.

• John George Lambton published report in 1839 Report on the affairs of British North America about Canada.
• Durham proposed an idea of a self-government - Colonies should elect governments themselves in domestic matters.
• The seven years war resulted in with a peace of Paris treaty in 1763 with Britain gaining all of New France but this did result in a revolt of the 13 colonies in America against the taxation from Britain inorder to make up money lostin the 7 years war.
• The evacuation of loyalists fromt  he American colonies led to many flcoking to Canada.
• Upper Canada had a largely British population.
• Lower Canada had a combination of french and loyalist settlers.
• Upper and Lower Canada had different tenure systems, languages and religions. But, their political system was very similar.
• Canada as a country did not exist yet, even though they were self governing.

• Far more British settlers - Loyalists from America were still seeking free land in Canada.
• In 1825, the Cash-strapped administration moved from a system of free land grants to auction sales of land, inorder to aid the colonisation and development of the province.
• Was governed by a Lieutenant governor (Who was appointed by London) - Thier role was similar to the Australian and British governors as they ran the povince and the executive council.
• Members of the executive council were chosen and could be removed by the Lieutenant governor.
• Notable families such as the Family compact maintained control of the council, and exercied their powers for their own benefit. There was a legislative assembly with 16 representatives elected by landowning males. - Any laws they came up with could be blocked.
• Mnay held alligence to the Anglican church.
• Tension = Upper Canada lacked infrastucture and capital investment and had a very small population. It was a fronteir of the British Empire with fragmented settlements and limited resources. Revenue was made by the sale of land and it caused tensions because reformer were unable to influence the actions of the Lieutenant governor. Family compact also caused tensions.

• Land tenure was based on the British Freehold tenure - most of the land was held by the crown and therfore was judged to be free to the settlers
• However, britian did not ecognise the indigenous people (1st nation) of Canada and their claim to the land.
• The church owned 1/7th of the landas it was for the clergy reserves. Profits were made from the sale or rental of the land and the money went to the church.
• The British were convinced that one of the best ways to maintain canadian loyalty was to support and continue to establish the Anglican church. It was not easy as many of the upper canadaians wer protestant (Baptist or methodist)
• The control of the family compact and their absolute loyalty meant no reform of the system of the clergy reserves was possible.

• Lower Canada had been colonised by pre-revolutionary France (1750s)
• Land was granted to a seigneur (Lord of a large estate) who would grant land to tenants to ffarm in exchange for rent - Feudal nature: land given for you to work on and give profits back to the owner.
• Tenants under the Seigneur system were protected by contracts and their relationship between the tenant and the Seigneur was overseen by the state.
• 75% - 80% of the rural population lived like this until the mid 19th centuary, as the British continued the system when they gained New France
• Tension - Main cause was a culture clash
  • Agreed free practice of Catholicism under the 1774 Quebec Act as well as accepting the use of French Civil Law
  • Lower Canada was typically French speaking, but the official language of the official assembly was english
  • An influx of British royalists caused tension with the french speakers - saw it as an attack on their way of life
  • French outnumbered the british population and opposed any of the wealthy British families (The Chateau Clique)

• British were unawar of any tensions building in upper and lower Canada
• In 1828, they recieved pertitions with around 87,000 signitures on petitions for social and political reforms. - Britain was keen to seek a resolution
• Londons solution was to craete a Canada Committee, a select parliamentary committee to report to the British Government on the underlying problems in the Canadas and how to solve them
• Created the 1791 consitution but had no solution.
• A report was published at the end of the Tory ministry. A whig government was introduced in 1830 and wanted greater reform of the constitutional system of Canada.
• In 1831, the Howick Act was past which transferred to the assemblies the revenues from duties -  in return the British expected that the assemblies would agree tot their Civil list for the payment of officials.
• The assemblies in Upper and Lower Canada were fustrated by this and the Civil List was not agreed by Lower Canadians.

• The 1791 consitution, which allowed the French Canadaians freedom and preserve their system of land Tenure, followed by the prrecedent sent by the Quebec act in 1774.
• The continuation of this policy from 1791 until 1837 rellion in lower Canada can be attributed to the threat of Canadian loyalty from the influence of the USA.
• By allowing the French Canadians religious freedom and preserving the legal system, the British hopd that the USA attempt to stir a rebellion would be unsucessful.
• The political structure of the in the Canadas by 1971 constitution was informed by the lessons the British had learnt from the American War of independance.
• By assembling legislative assemblies with financial autonomy, they hoped to prevent a similar situation in Canada.
• Executive power rested in the hands of a British appointed lieutenant governor meantt that at some points tensions between the colonies and Britian were inevitable.

Radical Reformers:

• During the rebellion of 1937, Robert Baldwin was in London protesting about his removal and against William Lyon Mackenzie.
• Mackenzie had been attacked by some sons of the Family Compact in 1826 making him a victim of persecution and aiding his reputation of a radical reformer. 
• Began his career being arguing that reforms to the current system would be beneficial.
• As time went on he felt that they should follow America and seek independance

Emigration:

• Irish moved to Upper Canada in the 1830s.
• Long standing residents in held prjudices against the Irish and said they were poor, criminally inclined and carried diseases.
• Reformers and members of the Family Compact both objected to the increased immagration would disrupt the status quo that existed as well as subsequant Cholera outbreaks. (1832 and 1834)

Lieutenant Governors:

• Sir John Colbourne and Sir Francis Bond Head wanted to govern and only consult the executive council.
• Colbourne was more successful than head as he had soe previous experience. However, he bypassed the legislarive assembly by using tax revenues to pay officials salaries.
• Head had no previous experience. - His actions promted an election in 1836 in which he campaigned against the reformers. He was sucessful in removing the reformers from the legislative assembly.

1836 Election:

• Was a victory for Head in that it delivered a pro - government majority. Laws were passed which extended to laws that prevented members of the legislature from serving as executive councilers.
• Under Mackenzies leadership, many reformers thought a rebellion was necessary and established committees of Corespondence and secret councils. - Created propaganda declairing a want for independance in Upper Canada.

• In December 1937 Mackenzie decided to launch a revolt in Upper Canada.
• 1000 men gathered for 4 days in Toronto
• Had unclear objectives, but the plan was attack property belonging to the Family Compact.
• On the 5th December several hundred poorly armed rebels marched south and exchanged in Gun fire with a smal group of loyalists. - The bulk of the rebel force fled.
• 3 days later, the remaining rebels fled to Navy island, were he decleared it a provisional state.
• Numbers grew, in reponse to Mackenzies promise of 300 acres for supporters.
• Their suppy ship the Caroline was burned on the 13th Jnauary 1838 and Mackenzie fled the island under heavy bombardment.
• He was captured and sentenced to 18 months for violating neutrality laws.

Results:

• Thousands of Rebels left Upper Canada for America. Those who stayed were arrested and 2 were hung.
• Those who left advocated for an American style revolution either fled to America or kept opinions to themselves.
• Britain were concerned with the event 

Papineau = Papineau was a decendent of an old seigneurial family and was prominant in politics. He became anti - British and refused to accept compromises surrounding control of finances. Before the 1830s he viewed the British constitution as perfect and believed that Canadas politics should be based off of British Parliament. However, Disontent in 1834, led to the 92 resolutions (political demands) being published demanding constituional change.

Economy = Did not perform well in the 1830s. The population was becoming radical as immagrents were bringing diseases such as Cholera, which was effecting the economy. By 1832, tensions were increasing with the military firing in to the crowd . The main economic problem was how to pay the salaries of officials.

Gosford Mission = Gosford had dealt with the complicated politicts in Ireland and was sent to Canada to to try to make progress on the political tensions. His 1836 Inquiry into Upper Cannda caused outrage as it showed that the British had no intention of engaging in the kind of consitutional reform that the Patriots were calling for. 10 Russell Resolutions were created in 1837 rejecting the 92 resolutions reform. Gosford called for an increase in British Military presence and banning public meetings. The Partiots began preparing for a revolt.

• The rebellion was far greater than the one in Upper Canada 
• When order was restored there were 500 Patriots in the jails of Montreal and around 13,000 rebels had been involved
• On the 10th of February 1838, an Act was passed by the British suspending the 1791 constitution of Lower Canada. 
• Governor Gosford was employed to run the provinance.
• Marital Law was revoked on 27th April 1838
• Any solution in Lower Canada must protect the rights of the British settlers 

• Lord Durham was popular and was part of the Whigs.
• He was a firm ruler and held tight power
• Lord Melbourne had no intentions of including Durham in his government as he did not want more middle class men to be in Government.
• In 1937 Durham was asked to take a look at the problem within Canada and to possibly come up with solutions on how to calm tensions. He initially refused until the Queen took appeal to the idea.
• Durham instisted taking his own advisors with him, which cased tensions between him and Melbourne as 2 of his advisors has questionable pasts. 
• He published a report in 1839 with solutions on how to politically unite Canada
• However, durnig his time in Canada he faced a lack of support from Melbourne but it was due to his poor health that he left Canada and came back to Britain. 
• Left Canada stronger than it had ever been.

Wakefield

• Served time in prison for attempting to abduct a 15 year old heiress - Searved 3 years
• Was instumental in the collection of material for the report. - Active in the interviewing process of Canadaian society.
• Concluded that a system of free land grants in Canada was a bad idea and instead advocated for selling land and encouraging more colonists. 

Buller

• Was a well liked young man
• Most of the work was done by Wakefield
• Was sympathetic towards French Canadians and believed that it was British Policies that drove them to revolt.
• His idea was to banish a small amount of rebels to Bermuda, which proved to be the cause of Durhams resignation.

• Limited sucess in craeting a self-government in Canada - ideas were not occupied everywhere.
• Revolts in Canada broke out soon after his departure.
• Only resolved political tensions temporarily
• Lasted 4 months in Canada before handing in his resignation
• Brought the British Government in to question - Made it look weak.
• Resigned as he had no support from Melbourne and his actions were constantly being criticised.
• Lower Canada celebrated his resignation as they wanted to return to their fudel system.
• Durham felt betrayed by his government and published a proclomation defending himself, and his actions while in Canada
• Lord Melbourne did not defend Durhams actions and caused thet relationship to breakdown.

• Durham submitted his report in February 1938 because his health had affected his energy and ambition to continue with it. It was published also in January 1939 
• It was called "A report n the affairs of British North America"
• He recomended that the 2 Canadas join to become 1 provience.
• He also recomended that the freedoms granted to the French Canadians under the Qubec Act should be used to promote economic growth to stabalise the economic situation.
• Also recomomended that Canada should be a self - governemnt.
• Suggested that the report should be coppied and used in other colonies of the empire. However, it was not coppied and was unique to Canada.

Importance

• It became an interlectual basis of the relationship between Britain and white settler colonies. It was adopted over the net 20 years.
• Long term implications gave praise to Durham, but for along time his efforts were over looked.
• Helped to change the politicals structure of the British Empire.

• Durham submitted his report in February 1938 because his health had affected his energy and ambition to continue with it. It was published also in January 1939 
• It was called "A report n the affairs of British North America"
• He recomended that the 2 Canadas join to become 1 provience.
• He also recomended that the freedoms granted to the French Canadians under the Qubec Act should be used to promote economic growth to stabalise the economic situation.
• Also recomomended that Canada should be a self - governemnt.
• Suggested that the report should be coppied and used in other colonies of the empire. However, it was not coppied and was unique to Canada.

Importance

• It became an interlectual basis of the relationship between Britain and white settler colonies. It was adopted over the net 20 years.
• Long term implications gave praise to Durham, but for along time his efforts were over looked.
• Helped to change the politicals structure of the British Empire.

• In 1600, the East India Company was formed under Elizabeth the 1st. (For trading)
• Trading was set up in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. - Traded with the Mughals
• Britain did not want to conquer India, but by 1820, Britain saw themselves as the dominant power for the forseeable future.
• The 1957 rebellion could have cost them greatly and the Britsh learnt their lessons.
• The subcontinebt became a jewel in Britains crown. It had thee main geographical areas: the indo-Gangetic plain, the Himalayas and the southern Plateau.
• The religions in India were a mixture of Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist.

• In the 18th and 19th centuary the territory was goverened by the East India Company, and it was aquired at the Battle of Plassey.
• The British Parliament passed a series of Acts, with the intention f ensuring financial solveny of the company. However it went bankrupt in 1770s and under regualised subsidairy the EIC came under the control of the crown.
• The 1983 Charter Act, renewed the governments charter for another 20 years, but removed it monopoly on Indias trade.
• Became involved in tax collection and civil administration of British territories in India.
• It had 3 private armies (one for each company presidency) to protect trade insterests - Bengal, Madras and Bombay. The power struggle between the British and the Frenchwere faught in India by the company armies. Private fortunes were made by the company, but poor management and leadership meant that parliament had to intervene.
• The Regulating Act of 1773 created a governing council of 5 based in Calcutta.
• The relationship between the Company and Parliament was altered by political doctorine of Free Trade. Althought the companies Charter was renewed in 1813 and 1833, the monopoly on trade was reduced and ended.

• The Governor and resident of Fort William was nominated to be the companies court of directors and was to serve 5 years. Then from 1773 his service was subject to approval by the council.
• Warren Hastings served as the first governor from 1774-1785.
• In 1874, parliament passed another India Act strengthening their executive power of the governor and a suplementary act passed in 1786 enabled governors to overide thier council if it deemed necessary.
• The first Governor to have these increased powers was Governor Cornwallis. In 1833, the governor general became the concurrent governor general of India.
• The Governor general of India was Sir William Bentinick, he was responsible for foreign policyof the territories and administration.
• From 1833, power was given to the governor general of suprintendence and had control over the millitary government of the whole of India

• The company had 3 private armies
  • Monarch / Government Soldiers
  • Eyropean regiment 
  • Native Indian Soldiers / Sepoy regiment
• By 1820, troops numbered 200,000, they were based in the 3 presidencies.
• By 1957 there were 45,000 European soldiers of all ranks in India out of a total 277,746 soldiers.
• Comapny Armies were the force that ensured that locl rulers signed treaties, and supported the tax collection and administrative roles.
• Army officers were trained in 1809 at the Abdiscombe Millitary Seminary in Surrey. If you went through it you were promised constant engagement within the millitary. Recruits shared values and the same sense of cultural superiority.
• Between 1829-1853, the company faught a number of campaigns in the North West of Afghanistan, Sind and Punjab. It sucessfuly annexed Assam, Manipur and Cacher.
• The first Afgha War (1838-42) was a disaster as theydid not have support from local rulers. it cost Briatin 20,000 lives and cost £15 million.

• Bengal was an important presidency in the company in the 19th centuary.
• Lord Cornwallis establishde and administrative structure, which laid down his code of regulations, which was the framework of Indian government for nearly 2 centuaries.
• Land was divided into districtsunder a collector and land holders were settled with rights to land in return for fixed tax liabilities.
• Collectors were supervised by a Board of Revenue in Calcutta.
• Legal administation was conducted by local judges and magistrates.
• Untill 1911, Calcutta was the Capital of British India.
• The Bengal presidency was twice as large as the other presidencies. It mainly recruted from higher Castes. - These groups held privilages, which they guared will jelousey.
• Sepoys (indian soldiers) were not recruted locally for the Benghal Army, and played a pivital role in the annexation of Punjab.

• By 1829, EIC operators had grown less tolerant of local customs and religious practices in India. They increasingly sought to change society, which is easier to do due to the fall of the Mughal Empire.
• Culture Clashes:
  • A sense of cultural superiority = Cased tensions in India as the British saw themselves as far more superior, and thought Indians might enjoy a sense of Britain.
  • Racial Harmony = Was challenged by the grwth of Evangelical Christianity and the arrival of more British women in India. Christains often judged other religions and saw them as inferior and missionaries tried to convert those of other faiths to Christianity.
  • Arrival of more British Women = It reinforced a growing sense of cultural divisions between company employees and Indians. British women came to India to find themselves husbands, however, mixed race children were not accepted in society.
• The EIC attempted to modernise india and it caused a rise in tensions from the native population. These tensions carried on for decades leading to mutany breaking out in 1857.

• Was the pratice of highway robbary and Ritual Murder. Practiced by men who who would strangle indians (only attacked indians) as a service of the Hindu Mother Kali.
• Between 1836 and 1848, a number of legal acts were passed, outlawing Thagi and the suppression of it.
• Was part of the British modernistaion plan. - it was led by Colonel William Sleeman, who divoted himself to its erradication.
• 1000 Thagi members were transported or hung for their crimes and around 3000 members were tried for their crimes.
• The campaign involved tring to capture the Thaigi and then useing their confessions to track down and capture others.

• Sati - An ancient Indian practice in which a widow would get herslf burnt to ashes during her late husbands funeral. As it was believed that they were now a burden on society.
• Female Infaticide - Was the killing of female babies at birth, as many found it difficult to provide dowaries for their unmarried daughters.
• Was a part of the British modernisation and caused a clash in cultures.
• The indians were not happy about the British trying to remove their tradition. This is because it occoured in most Bengal presidencies which was outside of British jurisdiction in 1829.
• The British estimated that there were 600 deaths a year due to Sati.
•  In 1829, a campaign was driven by Evangelical Christians to abolish Sati. They deemed anyone who agreed with the tradition was guilty.
• The company banned the practice in Callcutta in 1798 and missionaries preached against it.
• Was a series of concerns about the impact of such a ban on the local population.

• Missionaries -  a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people.
• Missionaries began to arrive in in India in the late 18th centuary.
• The first missionaries arrived in Bengal before the 18th centuary - they were baptists: Joshua Marsham, William Carey and William Ward.
• Indians saw missionaries as an insult. This was because they were trying to change their beliefs.
• The baptist missionaries focused on education and the translation of the Bible into Bengali.
• In 1818, a college was set up to train indiginous ministers for the gtowing local church.
• Charles Grant (Anglican) Campaigned with Willaim Wilberforce to allow protestant missionaries to go to India. After the Charter Act protestant missionaries were arriving in India in increasing numbers.
• English was promoted as the dominant language in India
• The arrival of missionaroes was another reason for tensions in India as they sought to undermine native cultures.

• Reforms of Dalhousie
  • British Paramountcy saw no reason to continue an alliance with the princely states. and e drew up conditions that stated that the British would and should intervene in the affairs of a native state.
• Annexation of Awadh
  • It was taken from the Indians in 1856. it was the 7th annexation under Dalhousie. Occoured under the doctorine of lapse, and was a primary cause of the rebellion. Was a traditional recruting ground of Sepoys, who feared they would have to fight abroad, caused a revolt.
• Cartridges
  • New cartriages were being lubricated with animal fat, placing both Hindus and Muslims at risk of defilment. Used beef and pork fat
• Doctorine of Lapse
  • Any princley state under direct influence of the British should be annexed if the ruler is incompetent or died without an heir.
• Seige and relief in Lucknow
  • Was a symbol of British resistance, led by Governor Lawrence who died by being hit by a shell. relief came and lucknow was evacuated 87 days after the siege began.

Reasons why the Britain retained control in India:

• The rebels were not a cohesive force - There was an unwillingness to cooperate together to forge a national revolt of so many denminations (peasent/ local leaders).

• The other two presidency armies remained loyal to the British and the area around Calcutta itself remained unaffected by unrest.

• Entire villages were massacred.
• At Cawpore mutineers were forced to try to lick clean blood stained buildings, before being forced to eat pork or beef and then are publically hung.
• In Peshawar, 40 men were strapped to barrels of cannons and blown apart, the old Mughal punishment for mutany.
• In Delhi, the British retaking of the city was accompanied by terrible slaughter.
• The lessons drawn from the rebellion by London were that creeky machienery of the company and its presidency armies was to blame for the crisis.
• In future, the British were determined to recognise the method of ruling India and to place it directly under the control and scrutiny of parliament.  

• The Government of India Act of 1858 was passed and ended company rule in India was ruled directly by Britain though a Viceroy (person who governs on behalf of the monarchy).
• The Viceroy was accountable to parliament and there was a secratary of state for India and an India council.
• The Princley States were brought under indirect control by series of treates. Annexation of the territory ceased instead of seeking to take control of the princely states, the british now cultivated the princley states remained loyal to the British Raj until the end of the British Empire in India.
• It cost £50 million to end the rebellion, the debt was transfered to the Raj following the collapse of the EIC.
• The taxation system was revamped. Instead of the wholesale reform of landownership and taxation that Dalhousie had instigated, the British relied on their old collaborations in the countryside and instead introduced an income tax on wealthier urban goups.

• The proportion of Indian Sepoys in the army was reduced by 40% and British troops were increased by 50%.
• Recrutment was switched from the Brahmin and Rajput Hindu Castes.
• From 1858 Sepoys were recruted from areas deemed to be more loyal to the British.
• Army policy and planning ensured that from then on adjacent regiments had different ethnic and religious backgrounds to prevent the speed of mutiny from regiment to regiment.
• Troops were allowed to use whether grease they prefered for their for their riffles and the introduction of the breech-loading rifle in 1867 made this type of cartrage obsolete.

• The modernisation agenda of Bentinck and Macaulay has been misjudged. The process of modernisation stemmed from a sense of cultural superiority.
• The modernisation that sprang from utilitarianism also sprang from a positive belief that indians, if they adopted Christianity and received Western education, would eventually be ready for democratic self-government on the westminster model.
• Following the Rebellion, attitudes of British imperialists were no longer imbued with the self-confidence and optimism which characterised the modernising agenda of the pre-rebellion British India. From this point, policy would become cautious and ragmatic to avoid.conflict.
• Britain was determined to hold on to India as an important source of wealth, and stratigic value, but are far less inclined to educate or develop indian society.
• British improved infrastructure but creating railways (24,760 miles of track), telegraph and postal networks. Along with irrigation and sanitation projets.

• In 1517 the Ottoman Empire had captured Egypt however, in the 19th sentuary it went in to a slow decline and completely collapsed after the second world war. 
• Other Empires were keen in it as it was wished to turn into a trading canal (later known as the Suez Canal in 1869) by the French. Under Disreli Britain brought shares in the suez canal and it opened up a whole new and quicker rute to India.
• The Kehdive liked their political freedom and that is what the Ottoman Empire gave them while they reined over Egypt in the 1850s.
• Egypt was heavily reliant on European investment from Britain and France. But even with investment the khedive went bankrupt in by 1875. Britain and France established 'Dual-Control' over Eygps finances, and enforced financial reforms.
• Egypt was later taken over by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and was prsuadeing the Britsh to replace the Khedive with  the Khedives son Tewfik - Who was more willing to compromise.
• British Prime Minister at the time was William Gladstone - Ordered the occupation of Egypt and took control of the country. The occupation happened during the scrable for Africa in.
• British control was only supposed to be a temporarymeasure to protect british interests but ended up lasting until 1922. 

• Colonel Ahamed Urabi was a nationalist officer in the Egyption army who led a group of army officers in protest against Tewfik and the Abglo-French interferance in Egypt.
• The Bourheoisie opposed the 'Dual Control's' financial measures, especially in army pay (was cut).
• Grew into a nationalist platform and he (the Arbai Pasha) began to speack of 'Egypt for the Egyptions'  and formed the Egyption Nationalist Party in 1879.
• In 1879 the Arabi Pasha led a coup following and attempt to dismiss 2,500 officers from the army to have salaries for others. - He was able to force the Khedive Tewfik to appoint a nationalist ministry.
• The new nationalist cabnet borrowed £400,000 from the German Rothschild family to avoid disputed cuts
• The British were deeply concerned about the volidity of the situation. In no way were they kind to the Egyption Nationalist Party.

• Humanitarian Reasons:
  • In the short term, Britain could claim intervention to prevent loss of Egyption life, due to the nationalist uprising. An argument between an Egyption donkey boy and a maltese man esculated in to violence and anti-christian riots: 50 Europeans and 250 Egyptions killed.
• Stratigic Reasons:
  • The opening of the Suez Canal dramatically shortened the Journey to India and 80% of shipping travelled through it - Canal was paramount to the British. France was already the main share holder in the suez canal when Britain purchased 45% in 1875.
• Financial Reasons:
  • Prime Minister Gladstone had invested 37% of his own money in to Egypt, so loans needed to be returned. And Britsh Bondholder were also exposed to its failure if egypt could not pay it debts.
• Trade Reasons:
  • Egyptions provided a growing market for Britsh exports and railways and harrbour building projects. During the American civil war Britain had imported alot of Egyption cotton. By 1880, Britain purchased 80% of Egypts exports nd supplied 44% of its imports.

• The British and Fench responded to increasing tensions in egypt by issuing the Gambetta Note which stated that the two powers regarded the maintainace of the Kedhive's power as the best gararantee for the order and development of prosperity.
• Was intended to warn nationalists under Arabi Pasha that the powers were minded to intervene millitary in Egypt should they deem the power of the Khedive to be under threat.
• Nationalists responded by forceing the nationalist cabnet on the Khedive and threatening to dispose of him.
• France and Britain sent warships in may to Alexandria to threaten the nationalists and restore the Khedives authority.
• However, the French warships did not participate and did not offer to support the British.
• There was a sudden change in policy because:
  • Germany indicated that they nolonger supported the Dual action by the 1870s
  • French intrnal politics meant that in January 1882, Leon Gambetta fell from power in France, and was replaced by someone who was less interested in intervening in Egypt. and the French paliament feared Egypt.

• January 1882 - Britain and France present a joint note to the government of Egypt recognising the Khedives authority.
• 20th May - An Anglo -French fleet sails for Alexandria where the Arabi Pasha has seized control.
• 11th June - An Anti-Christian riot takes place in Alexandia - 50 Christians killed. Arabi Paha puts down the riot and fortifies the city agasint the Anglo-french
• 11th July - British war ships began bombardment of Alexandria following a British ultimatum to Arabi Pasha (No french participation)
• 12th September - Pasdha is defeated at Tel el-Kabir, near cairo by the British, with 57 British dead and 2,000 Egyption casualties.
• 3rd December - Arabi Pasha is taken prisoner and exiled to Ceylon. The Britsh restore Tewfik as Khedive, who becomes and important figure head with power resting ont he British.
• 1883 - Sir Evelyn Baring returns to Egypt as consul general and the Britsh advisers and the Khedive report to him.

• Gladstone claimed that once financial stability was present in Egypt, then  British advisors would withdraw from Egypt. Leaving it under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
• However it remained under the control of the British for the next 32 years under the Veiled Protectorate (1882-1914).
• British wanted to continue being involved with the Khedive because of the nature of British individuals , radical Jihadist forces as well as Baring and his agenda for Egypt. British stayed at the request of the Khedive.
• On 66+ occasions the bRitish government announced they would leave Egypt, however the Khedive was unable to make political decisions which out consulting the British Consul.
• The nationalist army had been crushed and Britain set about reforming it finances to ensure stability.
• Sir Evelyn Baring was the British Consul from 1883-1907 and was key to the occupation and was believed that he did a great deal of work.

• Was British Consul General in Egypt 1883-1907
• He believed there needed to be fundermental changes in the agricultural infrastructure and government institutions of Egypt - How the country was run and who it was run by.
• His Early imperial experiences were in India.
• Was convinced of Anglo-Saxon superiority.
• Convinced the futire of Egypt rested on the developing agriculture and a large proportion of his time was spent improving drainage for agriculture.
• He was convinced of his own rightiousness, and was convinced that Great Britain was needed to stay in Egypt 
  • Needed someone who was reliable
  • Needed long term plans for security - following the collapes of the Ottoman Empire.
• The emergence of Radical Islam in the Sudan convinced Baring and the British that it would be dangerous for the British to withdraw - this helped to justify why Britian needed to stay in Egypt.

• Strengths:
  • Insinuated stringent financial control, making cuts to financial spending.
  • Restored the government in Egypt to solvency by 1887.
  • Managed to geta £9 million loan to Egypt - £8 million was spent on stabalising the debt and £1 million was spent on improving irrigation and drainage.
  • Government revenue was devoted to agruculture and hydrollic improvements under public works
  • Budget was put on millitary spending - was increased to protect the population.
• Weaknesses:
  • Down to 2 main factors: Budgetary constraints and the inevitable result of Barings mindset.
  • In 1884, a taxation system was introduced which caused many arguments and it was argued that it should be taken away - created alot of inequality.
  • The reinvestment in education was limited - refused to fund secondary education and raised primary school tutition fees.
  • Biggest weakness was his underestimation of the nationalist strength in Egypt.

• The radical emmergence convinced the British that it was dangerous to withdraw - Could lead to further problems.
• The Ottoman Empire placed Sudan under Egypts control but in the 1870s Egypt struggled to exersice control
• In 1873 Khedive Ismail had appointed Charles George Gorden as the Governor of Sudan -  he wa to put down riots against the Khedive and supress the slave trade.
• Gorden Resigned and returned to England when Ismail was deposed and his sucessor failed to maintain order and prevent ressurgence of the slave trade.
• In 1881, Egyption Control of the Sudan slipped away and the emergence of Radical Jihadist leader, the Madhi made the situation worse.
• Madhi forces were radical and extreamist and had a number of victories over the Egyption Army. - London realises that Egypt no longer had control.
• Sudam was of little interest to Britain, but Britain did not want the forces to take over Egypt.
• Britain new that the past Kjedives were incapable of controlling the Madhi in Sudan. The chances of British withdrawal form Egypt was reduced by the emergence of the Madhi.

Problems in Sudan emerged in the 19th Centuary due to changes with the relation between the Ottoman Empire and the Egyptions. - As the Ottoman Empire declined, Egyptions rulers grew more powerful.

1821 - Egypt took full control of the Sudan -  which meant more formal and administrative control/occupation. - No trade interests.

1873 - The end to the slave trade in Sudan, which was deep rooted in the Sudanees society. Governor Gorden worked to destabalise the economy and control the society. but he resigned in 1880 and subsequent governors had limited power over the fractured society.

• Failed to bring fully under control.
• If Gorden didn't resign he would have been sacked.

The rise of Militant Ilsam under the leadership of Muhammad Ahmad (who proclaimed himself the Mahdi in 1881) led to more destablisation.

Ahmad played on the hatred that the Sudanees haded the Egyption taxes and became popular from it. Was a gap in society for a leader. - Represented those with extreamist interests

The Egyption army launched a number of operations agaisnt Ahmad, which proved unsucessful and culminated in the whipping out of the 1883 expedition led by Sir William Hicks at Kashgil.

Hicks had entered the Khedive's services after the occupation in 1882 and was leading an Egyption force of 7,000 infantry and 1,000 calvalry. - All but 300 were killed by Muhdist forces

• Was brought out of retirement as he was the obvious choice to organise an evacuation of Sudan - as he knew the area very well.
• What Goren was trying to achieve had been debated widely. -  The seige of Khartoum
• Gorden was seen to be his own worst enemy. He knew he was under attack and was going to be ambused but did not move his troops.
• Gordon called for a relief expedition and asked for more troops. He did not withdraw and smuggled out his journal and to be given to the media.
• However, almost a year later the Mahdi broke through the Britsh fortification and those who were unevacuated were whipped out.
• Although reluctant Gladstone arrived at where they were based, but he arrived 2 days too late as Gordon and his men had been killed and Gordon had been decapitated.
• The seige of Khartoum was followed closely by the media and the public lammed Gladstone for dragging his feet and not dispatching a rescue expedition to rescue. - Leading to his defeat in the general election of 1885.
• Gladstones cabnet becam deeply divided, but agreed that Sudan should be left to the Mahdi.

• Happened in 1896 under Lord Sailsbury who ordeed a campaign in Sudan to secure the Nile. -  The Campaign was led by Kitchener.
• Sailsbury was a 'New Imperialist' who was content on expanding the British Empire. - Wanted to protect Egypt as it was vital for trade to India.
• The Anglo-French rivalry was back because of the expanssion.
• An expedition was launched under Lord Kitchener to adress the threats to the British interest in Egypt.
• The expedition was to proceed with care ensuring the supply lines were kept intact. 
• In 1896, the expedition was launched and after the defeat of the Itallians by the Mudhhist forces in Adowa (1896) Sailbury was convinced that it was the right time to show force against the Jihadists and reassert European superiority.
• It was to culminate in the conquest of the Sudan and the defeat of the Mahdi at Omdurman. - One of the bloodiest and most unequal battles of all time.

• In 1898, threats from the Frenchwere still present.
• Two armed forces met at Fashoda at almost the exact same time and the French and British interests intersected.
• A tiny French force of 120 men under the leadership of Major Marchand had reached Fashoda after a 14 month Journey. - They met Kitcheners 1,500 men (a strong army) 
• After their win Kitchener had opened his sealed envolope from Sailbury to establish a claim over the whole of the upper Nile.
• Kitchener allowed the french flag to fly, but was alot more powerful than the French. - French realised they were trying to deal with the British rather than the Muhdist forces.
• Made themselves a frenzy of imperialism and mobalised together.
• French were aware of Britains naval superiority and was caught up in its own internal crisis and backed down from Fashoda.

• Odurman was the base of the Mudhist forces under the leadership of Mahammad Ahmad.
• Abdallhi ibn Muhammad took over the Muhdist forces in 1885 after the death of Mahammad Ahmad.
• Lord Sailsbury has professed the destruction of the Muhdist forces as a long term goal for the British.
• Under the leadership of Kitchener, British forces defeated the Muhdist forces thereby winning the Sudanees territory that tje Muhdists had dominated since 1881.
• Muhdists forces - 10,000 died, 13,000 taken prisoner and 5,000 wounded.
• British forces - 47 dead and 382 wounded.
• The victory of the British was attributed to Kitchener's use of the Maxim Machine Gun a new piece of modern technology to win the battle. - However, dispite the victory Kitchener was still criticised by Churchill. -  Becasue of the money and the amount of men involved.
• Following the defeat of Mudhist forces, the British had effective control of the whole Nile Valley and Sudan became a part of the British Empire. - An unplanned Aquisition

• Kitchener was influenced by the death of Gorden and his failings in Sudan.
• He was pure army (family) and had a great deal of slef-control. In many ways the opposite to Gorden.
• He was apart of the realif effort that failed to get Gorden and his men out of Khartoum. - lErant his lesson from the original relief campaign and all its criticisms.
• His campaigns were methodical, equipped and used modern technology. He was one of the first to use the Maxim Machine Gun in Battle.
• The initail objective was Dongola, bu it was widened to retaking the whole of Sudan after a sucess in 1896 agaisnt the Muhdist garrison.
• Kitchener had 3 victories in Sudan: Dongola, Atbra before moving on to the Omdurman where his forces destoyed the Mahdi
• When Khartoum was finally retaken, it was clear that Kitchener still hated the Mahdi. He ordered the tomb of the Mahdi to be opened -  his head was decapitated. (so that it could not go to the afterlife)(part of the islamic tradition is to keep the body in one piece). This caused an outrage.
• Baring was notified and had to ensure that the Mahdi's head be burried properly and the enemy to be treated with decency/