Addiction Research

• Marks et al (1997) found that alcoholics were more likely to have a higher nicotine dependence as they smoked more heavily. As a result, alcoholics may experience greater discomfort from nicotine withdrawal upon trying to give up smoking. 

• Work looking at physical dependence and tolerance in mice for nicotine showed that withdrawal prompted an increase in somatic signs such as paw tremors, backing and head shakes. Grabus et al (2005) also found evidence for tolerance effects in that over a period of time there was an adjustment to the physical effects of nicotine such as body temperature, suggesting that the mice had become tolerant to the drug, thus requiring a higher level to induce similar responses. 

• Tsuang et al (1996) used data from the Vietnam Era Twin Registry to evaluate the genetic influence on addiction. They looked at the records of 3,000 male twins. To define addiction they deemed it to be at least weekly use of an illegal drug. The data showed that there was a significant difference in the concordance rates of MZ and DZ twins. 

 Secondary data, Cultural bias, Androcentric, Doesn’t account for legal drugs 

• Kendler et al (1997) found that the concordance rates for alcohol abuse in MZ twins were significantly higher than for DZ twins. The data was gathered from the Swedish Twin Registry and the sample size was large, at almost 9,000 twin pairs. The data had been collected over 40 years and the researchers found that the heritability figure stayed constant over time. This suggests that there is a genetic component to addiction. 

Cultural bias, Large sample size, Longitudinal study (over 40 years), Temporal validity 

• Tavolacci et al (2013) examined the risk factors in developing addiction at university. Their argument was that it was a stressful time and that this predisposed students to addictive disorders. They compared highly stressed students (using a perceived stress scale) with students who were feeling less stressed and found that high perception of stress was related to smoking regularly, alcohol abuse problems and risk of cyber addiction (addiction to the internet). This suggests that stress and vulnerability to addiction are linked, although a cause and effect relationship cannot be established through this research as it is correlational. 

Only on university students before 2013 so it cannot be generalisedd, There are multiple stress factors at university

• Piazza et al (1989) tested rats for vulnerability to addiction through stress. They achieved a state of stress in the rats by pinching their tails and found that rats were more likely to seek out and ingest amphetamines the more stressed they got.

Cannot extrapolate to humans, Correlational

• Howard et al (1997) in a meta-analysis of the studies investigating Cloninger’s tri-dimensional theory found that novelty seeking does predict alcohol abuse in teenagers and young adults. It also predicts anti-social behaviour in those alcoholics. 

Correlational, Large amount of research, Didn’t collect the data himself (secondary)

• Work by Zuckerman (1983) on sensation seeking shows a link between the need for novelty and addictive behaviours. Cloninger’s novelty seeking and Zuckerman’s sensation seeking are very closely linked so this supports Cloninger’s ideas too. 

• Christiansen et al (1989) have shown that the expectancies of adolescents can be used to predict drinking problems in later life. When sampling a group of 11-14 year olds they found that the amount and how often they drank a year later was linked to their expectancies and beliefs. This research shows the importance of environmental influence on later behaviour, so the influence of the family is potentially significant. 

• Dunn & Goldman (1996,1998) found that when they measured the expectancies of 7-18 year olds they mirrored those of adults. This suggests that the adults in a child's environment can heavily influence their attitude towards substance use and therefore potentially addiction. 

• A longitudinal study by Bullers et al (2001) it was found that selection of the peer group followed addiction in many cases and that it was the greatest influential direction. Social influence had less of an effect.
• Leshner (1998) believes treatment strategies must include social context elements, such as peer groups, as well as biological and behavioural ones if they are to be successful, as recovered addicts may relapse when leaving a clinic due to the original social context still being in place.

• Dani & Basi (2001) found that part of the reason nicotine is so addictive is because it acts upon the dopaminergic systems, which helps reinforce rewarding behaviour. This shows a direct relationship between the neural mechanisms in the brain and the rewarding effects felt while smoking.
• Watkins et al (2000) reviewed the research into the neurobiology of nicotine addiction. They found that dopamine release was reduced following chronic exposure to nicotine. This means that tolerance of the drug occurs due to the level of reward felt decreasing. 

• The US National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA) (2005) found that 90% of US smokers started smoking as adolescents. This was attributed mainly to observing and imitating peers. This suggests that the decision to start smoking is due in part to social learning factors. 

Cannot be generalised.

• In research with monkeys, Goldberg et al (1981) used a system where the monkeys had to press a lever to receive nicotine. The researchers found that the monkeys pressed the lever at a rate that was similar to the level that would be expected with cocaine. This suggests addictive behaviour and the idea that it is accessed for its reinforcing effect. Operant conditioning as an explanation for addiction therefore has research support.

Cannot extrapolate

• Blaszczynski & Nower (2002) looked at the possible origins of gambling addiction by reviewing the literature. They suggested that gamblers fell into one or three categories: behaviourally conditioned gamblers, emotionally vulnerable gamblers and antisocial impulsivist gamblers. The first group was deemed to have become addicted to their learned experiences through conditioning and this therefore lends support to the theory. However, the fact that not all gamblers can be classified this way suggests that it serves as an explanation for only some addicts.
• Parke & Griffiths (2004) investigated the idea of operant conditioning as an explanation for gambling addiction. They supported the idea that gambling is reinforcing due to the money, thrill and excitement, but they said that the fact that there is a sensation of a ‘near miss’ often experienced by gamblers makes it reinforced, even in times when there is loss. This means that the behaviour is generally reinforced in both a win and an ‘almost win’, making it highly addictive. 

• Joukhador et al (2003) compared the cognitive types of 52 social and 56 problem gamblers. They found that problem gamblers demonstrated more cognitive biases and irrational thinking than social gamblers. Interestingly, the use of denial showed no difference. Generally, however, the findings suggest that there is a distinct difference between the cognitive styles of those with a gambling problem and those without an addiction. 
• Toneatto (1999) reviewed the literature on cognitive bias and found that there were key biases in the thinking of problem gamblers. These included an exaggeration of their own skill, downplaying the skill of other gamblers and gambler’s fallacy. Gambler’s fallacy is a misbelief that if something occurs more frequently than expected during a period of time than it will be less likely to occur later. This supports the idea that gambling addiction is driven by distorted beliefs. 

• Fiore et al (1994) conducted a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of nicotine patches for smoking cessation and found that it is an effective aid to quitting smoking. When compared with cessation rates in placebo patch wearers, they found that smokers with a nicotine patch were twice as likely to stop smoking. This suggests that the steady release of low levels of nicotine can lessen the cravings. Drug use can therefore aid nicotine addiction. 
• Stead et al (2012) reviewed 150 high-quality research studies into the effectiveness of nicotine replacement therapy. They conducted that all forms of NRT are significantly more effective in helping smokers quit than both placebo and no treatment at all. Nasal spray was the most effective method of nicotine delivery. NRT users were up to 70% more likely to still be abstaining from smoking six month after quitting. This shows there is validity. 

• Cannon & Baker (1981) tested whether 1) aversion therapy worked and 2) whether emetic drug aversion therapy was more effective than electric shock aversion therapy. They had 20 male alcoholic volunteers and assigned them to one of three groups: electric shock therapy, emetic drug therapy or no aversion therapy. They found that only the emetic drug therapy worked and the electric shock treatment was not effective. This indicates that aversion therapy can work but that the unconditioned stimulus used must be chosen carefully.

Androcentric, Have got a control/comparison group

• Danaher (1977) tested how effective aversion therapy could be with smokers. 50 habitual smokers were used as the sample and the intervention lasted three weeks. As an unconditioned stimulus, the researchers used the smoke produced by the cigarettes and the smokers were asked to inhale deeply to the point that they felt sick. The treatment worked well for some participants but not others, which suggests that its effectiveness is specific for some individuals. 

• Fleiger and Zingle (1973) compared the use of individual covert sensitisation to problem-solving therapy which was administered in a group therapy situation. They found no statistically significant difference between the relapse rate at three months of the two treatments.
• McConaghy et al (1983) compared covert sensitisation as a treatment for gambling dependency against electrical aversion therapy, finding covert desensitisation to be more effective over a 12-month period, with 79% of these patients, compared with 50% of aversion patients, reported control over, or not indulging in gambling, in a long-term follow up study between two and nine years after treatment. This suggests that the treatment has long-term effectiveness. 

• Young (2007) found that using cognitive therapy to treat internet addiction was highly successful. Her work was based in the USA at a centre for online addiction and focused on 114 participants. She used a self-report measure to establish such constructs as motivation, time management and social relationship success over a period of six months. In that time, the participants received 12 sessions of CBT. Young found that most clients reported an excellent response to the treatment that was maintained six months later. 

Subjective

• Research into relapse prevention training has shown a good success rate. Chaney et al (1978) conducted a randomised trial on alcoholics. There were 40 participants who were all ex-soldiers. They were randomly assigned to the skills training (relapse prevention), insight-oriented group (psychotherapy) or treatment as usual. The group that received the skills training spent fewer days drunk than the other groups and they also consumed less alcohol and spent less time drinking. This seems to suggest that cognitive therapy can be very successful in comparison with other treatments.

• Godin & Kok (1996) reviewed how successful the theory was for predicting health-related behaviours generally. Their findings were positive, showing a significant correlation between the behaviours and the intention level predicted by the model. They also found that the level of perceived behavioural control made a significant contribution towards predicating the behaviours in half of the studies.

Can’t establish cause and effect

• Walker et al (2006) used interventions to assess whether theory of planned behaviour could explain gambling behaviour. They found that behavioural beliefs and normative beliefs were important, but that perceived behavioural control was not. Intention was, however, found to be a good predictor of behavioural change. This seems to support some elements of the model but not others. 

• Smoking cessation programmes based on this theory can be successful. A meta-analysis of five studies by Velicer et al (2007) showed that there was a robust 22-26% success rate, which compares favourably with other interventions. The researchers also found no demographic differences in success (gender, age, etc.), therefore it would suggest that it suits all groups. They did fine, however, that success was dependent on the smoking habits (e.g. frequency) of the individual.
• A randomised control trial conducted by Aveyard et al (2009) found that there was no increase in effectiveness if an intervention was tailored to the stages of chance to the individual trying to stop smoking. This clearly contradicts the evidence found by Velicer et al (2007).