5.2 - Social change under Napoleon

Napoleon promised a society where careers were "open to talents" - men and women could advance by their own merit

General Augereau = son of a Parisian fruitseller who rose to become the duc de Castiglione, a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour and the Marshal of France though promotions in the military

However there was a limit to how much those lower in society could advance - the government relied on the masses de granit and Napoleon was only really interested in civilians who could benefit him

Created a system of rewards and honours to motivate loyalty and effective service in the military and the state

Established 1802 

Military and civil award for loyalty but most were military (1500 out of 32000 awards given between 1802 and 1814 went to civilians)

Recipients recieved a small annual salary and a star of the order

The awards increased with the establishment of the empire (1805 and 1814)

In 1808 the award gave the recipient the title of chevalier de l'empire - made hereditary after three generations of recipients

Three women recieved the Legion of Honour for service to the military

1804 - Napoleon crowned Emperor

Granted princely titles to members of his own family including his brothers Joseph and Louis in 1804 and his brother-in-law and army general Joachim Murat

1806 - ducal titles created for senior figures and 'Marshals of France' 

March 1808 - Imperial nobility founded, including the titles of counts, barons and knights

Granting of titles accompanied by gifts of land or pensions and some became hereditary depending on the wealth of the recipient

Overall, 59% of the titles went to military men and the rest went to civil servants or notables. 22.5% went to Ancien Regime nobility and were used as a prop to the policy of ralliement. However, wasn't like the nobility of the Ancien Regime (was only a seventh of the size and primarily linked to service). 

Napoleon arguably claimed credit for ideas of early revolutionaries to extend education to everyone, regardless of background. 

1802 Ecole populaire (state primary school) established in each commune, subject to the inspection of a sub-prefect, and lycees to provide education for boys aged 10-16. 

Other private and church-run schools were allowed to exist, as long as they established virtues of obedience to the state. 

Lycees were secular and offered science. Napoleon saw them as providing the Empire's future military and civilian personnel. 

1808 - Imperial University established as a supervisory institution responsible for teacher training, appointments and promotions, the setting up of new schools, the curriculum and annual reports. 

Louis de Fontanes = first Grand Master of the Imperial University

By 1812, 1/3 of the staff in lycees and colleges were priests or ex-priests. May have been due to a shortage of suitably qualified lay staff. 

Napoleon had little interest in female education

January 1810 - Divorces Josephine to marry Marie-Louise, the Archduchess of Austria

Deemed primary education sufficient for girls 

1804 Civil Code granted women marginally more control over their own property when they married, as they were able to possess property in their own right. Could not sell property without the consent of their husband. 

Divorce law also remained unfair - a husband's adultery only considered grounds for divorce if he brought his mistress home, A woman's adultery did qualify and could bring a three month gaol snetence. Napoleon did introduce divorce by mutual consent, albeit with many provisos. 

By January 1800, Napoleon reduced the number of Parisian newspapers from 73 to 13

By 1801, only 4 Parisian newspapers remained

All were subject to police supervision and from 1809 censors were appointed to each paper - none were allowed to discuss controversial subjects

Only official news (as issued by Napoleon's ministers) and military bulletins (propaganda from the war front intended to boost morale and maintain acclaim at home issued by Napoleon himself) were allowed. Bad news was kept out of the press e.g. after the failed Russian campaign in 1812, Napoleon's bulletin reassured readers Napoleon was well and the army in good spirits.

1810 - Provincial papers reduced to one per departement

The government produced its own paper, Le Moniteur. Napoleon sought to influence thinking through a strict control over publications

1808 - Paris publishing houses reduced from nearly 200 to 60. The remaining 60 (as well as provincial publishers) had to obtain licenses from the police. Given powers to search a publisher's shop and seize books; a fine of 2000 francs (later 3000) could be given for posessing illegal works

January 1810 - censorship board set up to approve or reject books for publication. Official reports published on all plays, lectures and posters. Some authors and playwrights fled abroad - theatres could only operate under licence and many were closed.

Commissioned artists (Jacques-Louis David, Antoine-Jean Gros), architects, sculptors and writers to honour his achievements and present him as a saviour of France. Likened his empire to classical times

The Imperial Eagle - ancient Roman symbol distributed to army regiments 3 days after his coronation in 1804. Carried into battle to instil loyalty among the troops. 

Scheme of rebuilding and public works in Paris - some functional e.g. new roads + water supply, some showpieces e.g. Arc du Carousel, Arc de Triomphe, rebuilding of the Church of La Madeleine as the Temple of Glory. Glorified the regime

Church provided a means of control and reconciliation - Catholic worship became more open under the Directory. December 1799 - decreed churches could be open any day of the week, July 1800 - Sunday declared a day of rest

1800 - Accession of Pope Pius VII provided an opportunity for reconciliation

Concordat agreed 15th July 1801 but not published until Easter Sunday 1802. (Concluded Peace of Amiens beforehand (27th March) to reduce lingering support for Jacobin opposition.)

The agreement recognised the Pope as head of the Catholic church, Catholicism as the "religion of the majority", Pope agreed not to try to reclaim church lands and Bishops and clergy paid as civil servants, appointed by Napoleon

However, were accompanied by the Organic Articles (issued by Napoleon without any reference to the Pope). Govt. approval had to be given before any Papal legate/document entered France. All teachers in seminaries had to be Frenchmen and govt. regulated. Guaranteed religious tolerance to 700,000 Protestants and 40,000 Jews. Protestant ministers to take an oath of loyalty and be paid in the same way as Catholic priests.

January 1806 - Gregorian calendar restored

Refractory priests came out of hiding, churches reopened, revolutionary calendar abandoned, churchmen began to take a larger role in education

However, Napoleon's relationship with the Pope deteriorated

As well as Napoleon's ambitions in Italy, he humiliated the Pope at his coronation in 1804 and issued a catechism to be taught in schools in 1806 - included statements of duty, love, respect, obedience and loyalty to Napoleon, referring to him as the agent of God's power and 'his image on earth'

1808 - French troops occupy Rome

1809 - Pope imprisoned, Papal States annexed 

January 1813 - Forces the Pope to sign the Concordat of Fontainebleau, arranging for bishops and archbishops to be appointed by the Emperor and suggested the Pope should reside in Paris. Never put into effect.